February 18–May 14, 2023
Entrance in Ferring Gallery 212
Age of Armor
Treasures from the Higgins Collection at the Worcester Art Museum
Armor has been worn as both physical protection and personal adornment for thousands of years in nearly every culture around the world. It fulfilled a practical function when warfare was common and fighting was hand-to-hand.
Beginning in the mid-1300s, European armorers developed the classic knightly suit of plate armor, which sheathed the entire body in steel. These craftspeople were among the most skilled and celebrated artists of their time. At the height of their achievement in the 1500s, they created expressive armors combining advanced metalworking and decorating techniques with sophisticated style on par with elite male fashion.
Armor played a significant cultural role as well, symbolizing one’s identity and power, wealth and social prestige, and the values of a heroic past. Even as combat changed and armor’s ability to protect decreased, its forms continued to reflect these ideals. This exhibition explores armor’s global relevance from the European Middle Ages (about 500-1500) through the Renaissance (about 1500-1650) and into the present day.
Age of Armor: Treasures from the Higgins Armory Collection at the Worcester Art Museum was organized by the WORCESTER ART MUSEUM. Presented with generous support from the Betsy & Thomas Patterson Foundation and the E. Desmond Lee Family Endowment for Exhibitions.
Southern German
possibly made in Augsburg, Germany
Triple-Combed Open Burgonet,
about 1550–1555
steel with restored leather strap and buckle
weight: 4 lb. 10 oz.
Raised from a flat sheet of steel into a triple-combed shape, this exceptional helmet was made by a master armorer. It was probably produced for the personal guards of an important German nobleman.
The pairs of holes in the metal are for laces to attach a decorative fabric cover that was tied in place, leaving the combs exposed. Known as a burgonet, this style of open-faced helmet with cheek guards and raised combs resembles those depicted in the Flemish tapestry hanging nearby.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1072
Flemish
made in Brussels, Belgium
Tapestry, Daphne at the Temple of Artemis,
1500–1525
wool, silk, and linen
In the center of this tapestry, a woman in a green gown worships at an altar dedicated to Artemis. Known as “goddess of the hunt,” Artemis bears a shield, lance, breastplate, and an open-faced helmet with a ridged comb. In the upper right, Iris, messenger of the gods, sports a similar helmet.
Though set in the distant past, these mythological characters wear the fashions and armor of the early 1500s. The artist probably intended to evoke the kind of armor used by ancient warriors. A combed helmet from the mid-1500s is displayed nearby.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 38:1919
Rise of Plate Armor
In the late Middle Ages (1300–1400), plate armor emerged in Europe in response to changes in weaponry, battlefield tactics, and improvements in metalworking technology. Centuries earlier, the knight fighting from horseback wore an iron helmet and a shirt of mail. Created from tens of thousands of interlocking iron rings, mail provided excellent protection against sword cuts. However, it was less effective against crushing weapons like maces and the steel-tipped bolts of a crossbow.
Gradually, mail was supplemented with pieces of steel or hardened leather at vulnerable places like the knees, elbows, and torso. By the late 1300s, it was increasingly common for plate armor forged from steel to cover, fit, and flex with the body. Mail continued to be worn underneath to cover any gaps. Once it was fully developed, plate armor offered countless design possibilities, and craftsmen exploited its sculptural potential to make the wearer seem more alien and menacing.
Pompeo della Cesa, Italian, about 1537–1610
made in Milan, Italy
Field Armor from a Garniture, about 1595
steel, iron, brass, gold, silver, leather, and fabric
weight: 47 lb. 15 oz.
The entire surface of this field armor is ornamented with etching and accentuated with gilding and inlaid silver dots. The motifs, such as grimacing faces, elongated and intertwined fish, and winged thunderbolts symbolizing the Roman god Jupiter, are based on ancient Roman designs and were popular during the Renaissance.
As displayed, this armor is for heavy cavalry, who would serve as shock troops in battle. The wearer gained maximum protection at the cost of extra weight and restricted vision. The lance rest at the armpit helped to control the spear.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.112
English, blade German
Swept-Hilt Sword, about 1610
steel with silver and gold inlay
weight: 2 lb. 6 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.337
Look!
Beetle
Look closely…
When you think of armor, what’s the first thing that pops into your head?
Probably not a beetle.
This diabolical ironclad beetle (Nosoderma diabolicum) is just one example of armor found in nature. While the beetle’s shell isn’t as dazzling as a suit of steel, it acts as a strong shield.
Imagine you are wearing a suit of armor.
Think about it as your own protective shell.
Search for more stops like this one throughout the exhibition to discover the pieces of armor you’d need as a knight.
Western European, hilt possibly English
Broadsword of the “Castillon” Group,
1400–1450
steel with traces of organic materials from grip and scabbard
weight: 3 lb. 8 oz.
This broadsword was excavated from the Dordogne River in France. It was lost in 1453 by the retreating English forces defeated in the Battle of Castillon, the final event of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453).
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.56
Italian
Halberd, about 1540
steel and wood
weight: 3 lb. 12 oz.
The halberd was developed to give foot soldiers an advantage against armored knights. The long staff and spearpoint could keep a mounted enemy at a distance. The blade delivered a powerful chopping blow, and the spike in back was designed to pierce armor.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.137
German
made in Nuremberg, Germany
Rondel Dagger, about 1400–1450
steel, copper alloy, bone, and traces of gilding
weight: 11 oz.
In addition to a lance, a knight also carried a sword and a dagger as weapons of last resort. The diamond-shaped cross-section of the blade was designed to penetrate the gaps in armor and to break open the mail underneath.
Worcester Art Museum, Higgins Collection Acquisition Fund, funds by deaccession from the John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, and the Sarah C. Garver Fund, 2018.3
German
Basinet Helm with Aventail (Mail Hood) and “Dog-Faced” Visor, about 1360–1370
steel, iron and brass with modern leather, cord and restorations
weight: 6 lb. 2 oz.
This helmet is typical of the style worn by knights from the late 1300s to the early 1400s. Although it has been heavily restored and combines elements from two separate helmets, the pieces are all authentic. It remains a rare survivor of an important armor type. The so-called “dog-faced” visor deflected enemy weapons but also made the wearer appear more threatening and inhuman.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.842.1
German and Sudanese
probably made in Nuremberg, Germany, with Ottoman Empire and Sudanic African modifications
Mail Coat, early 1500s, modified in the 1800s
steel and brass with leather fragments
weight: 17 lb. 10 oz.
Mail, also known as chainmail, consists of tens of thousands of steel links, each individually riveted or welded shut. Originally made as a hip-length shirt, this rare example was later exported to the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) as military surplus. It probably ended its working life in northern Africa during the late 1800s when it was extended to protect the legs. Slit up the groin so it was flexible while on horseback, this style of mail is similar to what medieval knights wore before the development of plate armor.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.861
English
Stirrup, 1100s–1200s
iron and brass
weight: 12 oz.
Stirrups came to Europe around the year 700 from Central Asia and China. They helped establish the mounted knight as a powerhouse who dominated the medieval battlefield. Equipped with long lances and swords, armored knights on horseback fought as shock troops to break apart enemy formations.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1008
Master IA, Northern Italian
made in Milan, Italy
Infantry Breastplate “in the German style,”
about 1480
steel with modern leather
weight: 6 lb. 4 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.50
probably Italian
Mace, 1500–1550
steel or iron with gilding
weight: 3 lb. 2 oz.
In its simplest form, a mace is a club with a heavy head for striking. Maces were deadly weapons when mail armor was the norm. Some, like this example, were made with flanged, or projecting, heads for greater power. They were far less effective against plate armor, however, and in Europe they evolved to become highly decorated signs of rank.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 231:1923
Look!
Mail
Look closely…
Knights know all the details about their gear.
Let’s examine this flexible body armor known as mail.
Touch the mail. Feel how the interconnected rings move together.
Thousands of metal links form this bendable, protective fabric.
Think about how long it would take to make mail by hand!
Elements of Armor
It is a modern misconception that knights could barely move in their armor. Although quite heavy, a full suit consists of individual elements expertly crafted to fit the human form. Overlapping plates of metal allowed for greater flexibility and mobility. These were laced to the knight’s padded jacket, which secured the pieces to the body and supported their weight. Paired holes on each part were used for attaching them in place.
Austrian
possibly made in Innsbruck or Mühlau, Austria
Right Pauldron, about 1490
steel and leather
weight: 2 lb. 7 oz.
The pauldron protected the knight’s shoulder. The side facing the viewer covered the shoulder blade to prevent a gap in the armor when the knight lifted his arm.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1146.4
perhaps Italian
Breastplate, about 1500–1510
steel
weight: 5 lb. 5 oz.
The knight’s armored defense for the torso consisted of a breastplate, which would be attached with belts and straps to a conforming backplate. This plain example demonstrates the restrained sculptural style favored by Italian armorers.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.760
European
Mail Sleeve,
probably early 1500s
iron and brass
weight: 3 lb. 10 oz.
Knights wore mail underneath plate armor to protect the gaps at vulnerable areas like the underarms and elbows.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.858.2
probably Spanish
Cowter for the Left Elbow,
1490–1500
steel
weight: 6 oz.
The cowter, or “elbow cop,” overlapped the armor of the upper and lower arm.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.808
German, or possibly Austrian
Mitten Gauntlet, about 1550
steel
weight: 2 lb.
Gauntlets provided protection for the hands while permitting the flexibility necessary to wield a sword or control the reins of a horse. They feature an ingenious system of plates connected by rivets and would have been attached to a leather glove. A properly designed and fitted gauntlet enabled a knight to pick up even small objects.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 442:1919
probably Italian
Poleyn for the Right Knee with Extension Plate,
about 1400–1420
steel
weight: 8 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.909
Northern Italian
made in Milan, Italy
Cuisse for the Left Leg, 1450–1490,
with restorations from 1925
steel and iron with leather
weight: 3 lb. 4 oz.
A cuisse protected a knight’s thigh while the side wing projecting from the poleyn shielded the back of the knee.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.842.5
German
Sabaton for the Left Foot,
about 1490
steel and leather
weight: 7 oz.
The sabaton, armor for the knight’s foot, mimicked the shape of a medieval shoe.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1153.7
Lucas Cranach the Elder,
German, 1472–1553
made in Wittenberg, Germany
St. George Standing with Two Angels, 1506
woodcut
Clad as a knight with a lance, sword, and dagger, St. George stands triumphantly before the dragon he has slain. This highly detailed print captures the contrasting textures of his mail coat and mittens with his mirror-polished plate armor. Visible straps and buckles secure the articulated tassets protecting the upper thighs and the right cuisse, or thigh armor, to the leg. An attending angel at left carries the saint’s visored helmet ornamented with ostrich-feather plumage called a panache. Although known as a Roman soldier martyred in 303 for refusing to give up Christianity, St. George appears in the armor of Wittenberg, Germany, where this print was made in 1506.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Henry V. Putzel 54:1954
The Crossbow
The development and evolution of weaponry continually challenged armorers. The crossbow presented one such threat. These were simple point-and-shoot weapons that even minimally trained soldiers could employ effectively. The cranequin is a mechanical device used to draw the crossbow, allowing it to deliver far more power than a normal bow. The bolts have stout heads to help them pierce armor.
Ulrich Wildisen,
Swiss, active around 1546
made in Germany
Cranequin (Crossbow Winder),
about 1550
steel, iron, brass, copper inlay, bone or horn, and walnut wood weight: 4 lb. 1 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.581
Central European,
probably German or Austrian
Crossbow, 1450–1475
wood, horn, sinew, birch bark, staghorn, leather, fiber, and iron weight: about 7 lb.
Laird Landmann, 2023.117
Austrian
Quiver for Crossbow Bolts,
late 1400s–early 1500s
leather, animal pelt, wood, and glue
weight: 1 lb. 4 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.622
probably German
Crossbow Bolts,
early 1500s
steel, wood, and leather
weight: 2.5 oz. each
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.686.1-6
Swiss
Pavise (Archer’s Shield), before 1467
wood, painted leather, boar skin, and iron
weight: 11 lb. 4 oz.
On the battlefield, archers often carried a shield called a pavise. It could be set vertically against a support and was large enough for a foot soldier to crouch behind it while readying his bow or crossbow. Shields are among the oldest forms of defensive armor. They were part of a knight’s equipment until full plate armor was adopted. Less well-equipped knights and other troops continued to use shields for a longer time.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 94:1932
Armor as Fashion
By the early 1400s, the suit of armor was well established in Europe. Early forms were covered with fabric garments, but these were later removed to reveal the steel itself. Subsequent generations of armorers developed new designs reflecting not just evolving battlefield realities, but also changing tastes. Armor was a form of fashion, echoing the clothing styles of the time.
During the early 1500s, the fashion in armor became increasingly elaborate, going even further in its imitation of civilian clothing. Armor developed broad silhouettes, squared necklines, narrow waistlines, and wide-toed sabatons in response to trends in shoe styles.
The surface of the armor was fluted to mimic pleated garments while the defenses for the lower leg, called greaves, were left smooth like the close-fitting hose worn on the calves. The rippling surface of Maximilian-style armor is often considered the apex of the armorer’s craft. The compound curvature required to match the body is inherently difficult to hammer into steel, especially when enriched with dense ribbing.
Hans Hörburger the Elder,
Austrian, active 1556–1586
made in Innsbruck, Austria
Comb Morion, 1556–1586
steel, brass, and leather fragments
weight: 2 lb. 10 oz.
This infantry helmet was made by a specialist in munitions-grade armor. It uses relatively thin steel and has been left rough from the hammer. Finer armors would be beaten with a series of successively lighter hammers to remove these marks. Nonetheless, the complex shape of this helmet has been formed from a single sheet of metal, a testament to the remarkable skill of the armorer. His mark, the letter “H” stamped twice, can be seen on the brim.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1094
German or Austrian
“Mitten” Gauntlet,
1540–1560
steel
weight: 1 lb. 6 oz.
Like modern handwear, gauntlets came in two versions—glove and mitten. The glove-style allowed better mobility for the hands than the mitten version, but offered less protection. Both types of gauntlets originally had leather gloves stitched inside, but they rarely survive. In addition to the fluid shaping of its wrist and forearm, this example features a number of ornamental refinements. Note the decorative notches in the flexible metal plates, or lames, across the fingers, the detailing of the pointed cuff, and the fluted rivets throughout.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.573
Anton Peffenhauser,
German, 1525–1603
etched by Jörg T. Sorg the Younger,
German, 1517–1603
made in Augsburg, Germany
Breastplate and Tassets from the Field Armor of Stephanus Doria, 1551
etched and gilded steel, brass, and leather weight: 13 lb. 5 oz.
On this breastplate and set of tassets, Anton Peffenhauser, a leading armorer in Augsburg, Germany, deeply hammered his designs into the metal. His collaborator, Jörg Sorg, etched the shallower patterns, highlighting them with gilding and heat blackening. Sorg also kept an illustrated notebook of the armors he worked on, allowing us to identify the date, maker, and owner of this piece.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1155.3,7,8
The Armorer’s Craft
Armor making was a complex and specialized craft and one of the most industrialized processes of its day. Armorers flattened steel bars into sheets of metal and cut pieces to shape with heavy shears. Each element was hammered by hand to follow the contours of the body and jointed to flex naturally with its motion. Armorers used broad-faced hammers to smooth out the hammer marks, and the most refined armors could be mirror polished with water-driven buffing wheels. A suit of armor might require approximately three months of labor by a master and his assistants to complete. Some examples bear the marks of these craftsmen.
Italian
Anvil, 1400s–1500s
wrought iron
weight: 36 lb. 10 oz.
An armorer’s primary tools were hammers and anvils. This well-used anvil sat on a wooden block to help absorb the shock of the hammer. The hole on the upper face accommodated a stake, a steel post that could take a variety of forms to help the armorer create the desired shapes.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1031
Rafe Boulter, English, active 1635–1648
Sylvester Keene, English,
active 1627–1665
made in London, England
Breastplate, 1640–1645
steel
weight: 8 lb. 11 oz.
This cavalryman’s breastplate bears several stamps near its neckline. The crowned “A” of the Armourers’ Company of London can be seen on the left. To the right is stamped “BK” for Boulter and Keene, the makers of the armor. Slightly further to the right is the inventory number “I58.” Pieces like this were mass-produced by contractors like Boulter and Keene for the opposing sides in the English Civil War (1642–1646).
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.745
Albrecht Dürer,
German, 1471–1528
Knight, Death, and the Devil, 1513
engraving
Albrecht Dürer’s steadfast knight resists Death holding an hourglass, and a devil, a hideous horned beast. The knight’s sallet helmet, similar in form to the example nearby, has a pivoting visor and a close-fitting chin and neck defense called a bevor.
The sheen of the horse’s coat and glow of the knight’s plate armor drew praise for Dürer’s remarkable ability to convey such luminous effects with line. The still-mysterious subject matter of this engraving likely reflects notions of the knight as model of moral virtue.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of J. Lionberger Davis 65:1951
Jost Amman,
German (born Switzerland), 1539–1591
Pepin, King of Gascony, from the series The Dukes of Bavaria, 1583
Etching
The elaborate plumed helmet with an animal-like mask visor, muscled cuirass, or breastplate, and armored skirt are all elements of ancient Roman armor as imagined by artist Jost Amman. This depiction of a somewhat mysterious figure belongs to a series of prints illustrating an unpublished history of the dukes of Bavaria. Amman’s treatment of his subjects—often in fantastical armor—corresponded to a celebratory and historicizing approach meant to reaffirm the validity of present-day rulers.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mrs. Moyer S. Fleisher in memory of Dr. Moyer S. Fleisher 199:1968
German
Sallet, c.1470–1480
steel
weight: 7 lb. 7 oz.
This sallet helmet was beaten from a large sheet of metal using only hammers, anvil stakes, and muscle power. The graceful form is intended to provide smooth surfaces that would readily deflect weapon blows on the battlefield.
Michael & Patricia O’Neill 2023.116
Hans Seusenhofer,
Austrian, 1470–1555
made in Innsbruck, Austria
Grotesque Mask Visor, c.1525–1530
steel
weight: 1 lb. 7 oz.
The exaggerated hooked nose, twisted mustache, and toothy grin of this mask visor represent high-relief sculpture in steel. Holes beneath the eye slit and faint, almond-shaped shadows indicate where applied and engraved eyes were once attached.
Armor created for tournaments sometimes includes comical elements intended for sporting combats staged as mock battles between heroic Central European warriors and Ottoman Turkish forces. This mask visor may caricature the features of a Turk. It was probably made between 1525 and 1533, when the Ottoman army led by Süleyman the Magnificent (reigned 1520–1566) twice besieged Vienna.
Michael & Patricia O’Neill 2023.115
Lucas Cranach the Elder,
German, 1472–1553
Judgment of Paris, 1530
oil and tempera on panel
This scene comes from the ancient Greek story of the Judgment of Paris. In this 1530 version, Paris is reimagined as a knight wearing fluted Maximilian-style armor in red. On a hunt, Paris tumbles into a bush. He dreams the god Mercury, clad in peacock feathers, tells him to judge the most beautiful of three goddesses—Juno, at the right, Minerva, in the center, and Venus, at left, who claims the winner’s golden orb. The cut of the peacock-feather attire worn by Mercury mirrors the swelled breastplate, pinched waistline, flared hose, smooth legs, and broad toes of Paris’ armor.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 28:1932
Daniel Hopfer,
German, 1471–1536
Three Landsknechte, about 1535
etching
Billowing sleeves and narrow pleated hose cut with short slits characterize the flamboyant fashions of Swiss and German mercenaries called Landsknechte. The slashed style may have originally imitated the distressed look of military clothing, but by this time it had become a civilian fashion statement.
Daniel Hopfer was the first to employ the technique of etching—also used to decorate armor—to make his prints. The etching process involved covering a metal plate with a waxy ground. Hopfer then drew the design into the ground with a needle, exposing the metal beneath. The plate was dipped in an acid bath, which incised the lines into its surface.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Funds given by The Sidney S. and Sadie Cohen Print Purchase Fund, The Julian and Hope Edison Print Fund, and the Print, Drawing, and Photograph Study Society 325:1991
Flemish
made in Belgium
Tapestry, about 1500–1530
wool
Animals for the hunt, including two-humped camels and unicorns, graze in a dense field of flowers. In the center, an unidentified coat of arms is flanked by two Roman-style breastplates, helmets, and shields. A sword is at left, and a fan of arrows at right.
Assemblages of ancient armor and weapons called trophies were a common decorative motif during the Renaissance (about 1350–1600), a period of renewed interest in Roman antiquity. Tapestries were costly wall coverings woven in wool and silk and sometimes enriched with gold- and silver-wrapped threads.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 104:1928
Maximilian-Style Armor
These pieces of armor embody the artistry of the Maximilian style. The rippled surface of the breastplate is gathered at the waist to imitate the pleated look of a man’s civilian jacket, and the surfaces are extensively etched. The cowter, or elbow guard, combines fluted, plain, and etched surfaces with complex contours in a stunning display of technique. The Maximilian style was even incorporated into horse armor.
Italian
probably made in Milan, Italy
Breastplate and Fauld in the Maximilian Style,
about 1510–1515
steel with later etching
weight: 7 lb. 2 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.806.3
Southern German
Shaffron (Horse’s Head Armor) in the Maximilian Style,
about 1520 steel
weight: 3 lb. 2 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.16
Southern German
Left Cowter (Elbow Guard) in the Maximilian Style, 1530–1540
etched and blackened steel
weight: 2 lb. 8 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1138.5
Southern German
probably made in Augsburg, Germany
War Hammer for a Horseman,
about 1525–1530
etched and blackened steel
weight: 2 lb. 12 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.469
Southern German
“Maximilian” Field Armor,
about 1525–1530
steel, iron, and leather with modern restorations
weight: 64 lb. 14 oz.
Knights were also courtiers whose armor was an integral part of their stylish wardrobes. The rounded forms and rippled surface of this example resemble the pleated fabric of civilian clothing. The smooth armor worn on the lower leg imitates stockings, and the broad-toed sabatons echo the shape of fashionable men’s shoes. Armor with ribbing like this one was popular in Germany from the 1510s until about 1530. It was later named after the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, a major patron of armorers, who reigned during this period.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.111
Hans Burgkmair the Elder, German, 1473–1531, Equestrian Portrait of the Emperor Maximilian I, 1508; woodcut from two blocks in black and gold on vellum; Art Institute Chicago, Clarence Buckingham Collection 1961.3
Flemish
made in Brussels, Belgium
Tapestry, Christ Bearing the Cross,
about 1500
wool and silk
This tapestry panel depicts a scene of Jesus’ last days with Roman guards at right and a saint at left wearing armor of the late 1400s. At this time, even lustrous steel armors were still cloaked under rich textiles. With the emergence of the Maximilian style in the 1500s, armor was exposed and the surface shaped and ornamented to mimic civilian clothing.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 186:1926
Tournament Helmets
These helmets were for a type of tournament combat in which the opponents fought with blunt swords or spears from opposite sides of a wooden partition. With such a setup, the head was naturally a prime target. Both helmets are made of especially thick steel, and the marks of many sword blows appear on the left side of the plainer helmet, where right-handed attacks would tend to hit. Gilded ornamentation—like the etched vine on the comb and the foliage on the bowl of the other helmet—is found on only the finest tournament armors.
Southern German
made in Augsburg, Germany
Close Helmet for the Foot Tourney,
about 1590
steel (formerly blued) with etching and gilding, and brass
weight: 11 lb. 15 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1113
Italian
probably made in Milan, Italy
Close Helmet for Foot Combat at the Barriers,
about 1600
steel and brass
weight: 9 lb. 15 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1156.1
Look!
Helmets
Look closely…
Every knight needs a sturdy helmet
Peer carefully through the two thin slits of these helmet visors.
What is the view like?
Tournament helmets offered maximum protection for jousters.
The eye openings were as small as possible but still let the knights see their opponent’s lance coming toward them.
Uses of Armor
Battlefield armor, also known as field armor, had to balance mobility, lightness, and visibility with protection. Heavy cavalry wore the most restrictive type, which was made of thick steel and covered most of the body. On average, field armor weighs about 50 to 60 pounds. The finest examples have additional pieces that could be swapped out for different kinds of battles or martial sports in tournaments.
Originally serving as practice for warfare, tournaments evolved into combat events, costumed role-playing, and elaborate pageants by the 1400s. Tournament combat took many forms, each with its own rules and equipment. Some were fought on foot, others on horseback, either one-on-one or between teams.
For jousting, opposing knights separated by a barrier charged each other with lances. Armor for these competitions was often substantially reinforced on the left side, which was threatened by the opponent’s lance. Points were scored for hits on the body or head, breaking the lance-which required a very solid hit-or knocking jousters off their horses. Armor for tournaments on foot included a reinforced helmet. If a barrier separated the combatants, the armor might only cover the upper portions of the body.
Workshops of Wolf and Peter
von Speyer, German, or Wolf Peppinghorn, German
Rennzeug (Armor for the “Joust of War”),
about 1590–1600
steel, iron, leather, black paint, textile, and horsehair stuffing
weight: 93 lb. 1 oz.
This suit weighs nearly twice as much as battlefield armor. The greatest protection is concentrated on the left side of the head and chest, prime targets in jousting. In this controlled environment, the jouster required less mobility and visibility than in battle. Tucking the lance under the right arm, the rider used the triangular lance-rest on the right side of the breastplate to help control the weapon.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1154
Northern German
Armor for the Plankengestech (“Joust over the Tilt”),
1550–1575
steel, iron, brass, and modern leather with restorations
weight: 64 lb. 6 oz.
The trelliswork on this shield helped catch the tip of a jousting opponent’s lance, increasing the chances of a dramatic shatter to excite the audience. The knight’s right hand was protected by a vamplate similar to the one on display nearby. A tilt was a wooden barrier between jousters. It made the event more intense by allowing the participants to run along it at high speed, or full tilt, without worrying about a collision.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.79.1
German
made in Passau, Germany
Two-Handed Sword, about 1300
steel with brass inlay
weight: 3 lb. 14 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.57
Wolfgang Stäntler, German
made in Munich, Germany
Swept-Hilt Sword for the Munich Town Guard, about 1600
steel, blued iron, and wood
weight: 3 lb. 3 oz.
These two swords demonstrate advances in metalworking from the 1300s to the 1600s. The two-handed sword resulted from technical improvements that allowed blacksmiths to produce longer swords. Over time, swordsmen began slipping their index fingers over the simple crossbar to better control the blade. Since this exposed the finger to injury, protective iron loops were added at the base of the blade.
As methods and forms evolved, additional bars for defense were gradually added, leading to the elegant arabesques of the swept hilt. This sword balances the sharp point of a civilian rapier and the wide base of a military broadsword. It was well suited to the needs of a town guard, whose duties ranged from breaking up street fights to defending the city in times of war.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.52
German
perhaps made in Augsburg, Germany
Right Vambrace (Armguard) for a Child,
about 1625–1650
steel and iron with traces of leather
weight: 3 lbs.
Children’s armor, like the vambrace or armguard seen here, was worn purely for ceremony. Knighthood, however, began at birth for youths whose parents held positions of wealth and status in society. The future knight would learn to ride a horse as a child and start training with weapons as a teen.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.805
probably Michel Witz the Younger,
Austrian, 1510–1588
probably made in Innsbruck, Austria
Breastplate for Heavy Cavalry, 1530s
steel and leather
weight: 13 lb.
The turned, rope-like edges at the neck, arms, and groin of this breastplate were designed
to deflect the tips of incoming weapons. The technique was difficult to achieve in the exceptionally thick steel needed for heavy cavalry armor.
The shield-mark stamped at the shoulders represents the red-and-white emblem of the Habsburg Empire (1526–1918), which still appears on the Austrian national flag. A masterpiece of the armorer’s art, the breastplate may have been created for Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I (reigned 1558–1564) before he ascended to the throne.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1166.3
Southern German
made in Augsburg, Germany
Shaffron (Horse’s Head Armor),
about 1560
etched and gilded steel, brass, and leather
weight: 3 lb. 4 oz.
Etched bands with gilding and brass rivets ornament this armor for a horse’s head, called a shaffron. Horsemanship was an essential skill for knights, whose original purpose was to serve as mounted warriors. In fact, the term “chivalry” comes from cheval, the French word for horse. A warhorse often wore at least a shaffron and sometimes additional armor for the neck and body. By the 1500s, it was fashionable for horses and riders to wear matching armors.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.10.1.1
German
Horse Muzzle,
about 1550–1575
tin-plated iron
Nested within the scrolling vines of this finely wrought horse armor are griffins and double-headed eagles. Although highly ornamented and carefully fitted to the horse’s muzzle, its purpose was to prevent the animal from grazing or biting.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 59:1939
Italian
perhaps made in Milan, Italy
Sallet,
1450–1499
steel
weight: 2 lb. 8 oz.
By the late 1400s, most combatants on the battlefield wore some armor, or at least a helmet. This light sallet helmet was worn by an ordinary foot soldier. Heavier versions, with added protection for the face and throat, were worn by knights.
This example was left on the island of Rhodes after the defeat of the Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem by forces of the Ottoman Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent in 1522.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1077
Image blow-up: Lucas Cranach the Elder, German, 1472-1553; The Third Tournament with Lances, 1509; woodcut on cream laid paper; image, with border: 11 7/16 × 16 7/16 inches, sheet: 12 3/16 × 17 5/16 inches; Worcester Art Museum, Museum Purchase 1935.153; Image ©Worcester Art Museum, all rights reserved
probably German
Vamplate (Hand-Guard for a Lance),
1575–1600
iron, brass, and leather
weight: 1 lb. 9 oz.
A jouster’s lance was often fitted with a vamplate to protect the hand. It added to the weight of the lance, but this was not a problem in the controlled circumstances of the tournament, where the jouster could rest between rounds. The paired holes secured a padded lining to provide cushioning from the impact.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.969
Northern Italian
made in Milan, Italy
Close Helmet for Field and Tournament,
about 1550–1570
etched steel with traces of gilding
weight: 8 lb.
This cavalry helmet’s central ridged comb adds strength and serves as a decorative feature. Similarly, the sharp prow helps deflect incoming spearpoints while adding to the dramatic sculptural form. The narrow eye slot is also typical of helmets designed for use with a lance to reduce the risk of a spearpoint penetrating it. Limited vision was a relatively minor inconvenience in lance combat, which required focused concentration on a single target.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1124
attributed to Kolman Helmschmid, German, 1471–1532
etching perhaps by Hans Burgkmair the Elder, German, 1473–1531
after designs by Daniel Hopfer, German, about 1470–1536
made in Augsburg, Germany
Reinforcing Breastplate and Tasset for the Joust,
1520–1525
etched steel and brass with modern leather
weight: 9 lb.
This reinforcing breastplate for the joust was made to bolt over the wearer’s breastplate through a hole near the neckline. Jousting armor needed to be heavier than that for war and often included additional protective elements for the jouster’s left side. Along with the left tasset, this armor was produced for the “Italian joust over the barrier” fought using lances with three-pronged tips designed to splinter on the opponent’s shield.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1138.3,7
possibly German
Reinforce for the Left Pauldron,
probably late 1400s
steel
weight: 3 lb. 13 oz.
Some forms of jousting used normal battlefield armor with a few reinforcing pieces at critical points. This example was secured to a peg on the pauldron, or shoulder armor. Since jousters passed one another from the left side, only that half of the body required extra protection.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1138.8
Decorating Armor
By the late 1500s, the shape of armor was simplified. Some breastplates were made with a pronounced center ridge and prominent bulge at the waist known as a peasecod. This form was both defensive and fashionable. The ridge added strength while the sloping sides deflected weapons. The profile and ornament of breastplates at this time also imitated the cut of a man’s jacket, or doublet. To mimic the fabrics and trims of contemporary clothing, armor was embellished with blackened etching accentuated with gilding.
Armor could also be colored by heating and then rapidly cooling the metal with oil, resulting in shades of peacock blue, deep blue black, or reddish brown. These surface treatments offered some protection against rust, but also heightened the visual impact of the etched and gilded decoration.
At its most extravagant, armor was wearable sculpture. Artisans skillfully embossed, or hammered, designs from the reverse to create raised patterns, which sometimes rendered the armor unusable for combat. Armor with etching, gilding, fire bluing, or embossing represented the height of taste and status.
studio of Peter Paul Rubens,
Flemish, 1577–1640
Marquis Ambrogio Spinola, about 1630
oil on canvas
Armor and clothing styles developed in parallel, and they were often worn together. This portrait captures the subject’s magnificent lace ruff and cuffs, gold-embroidered jacket and hose, and etched, gilded, and blackened armor. Ambrogio Spinola was a Genoese military officer who commanded the Spanish army in the Netherlands. The overall form and decoration of Spinola’s breastplate is similar to that of the peasecod breastplate installed nearby.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 33:1934
Northern Italian
made in Milan, Italy
Cabasset, about 1590
steel with etching, gilding and blackening, brass, fabric, leather, and gold thread
weight: 3 lb. 7 oz.
This cabasset, an open-faced helmet worn by foot soldiers, retains its original cheekpieces and fabric lining. Helmets always had textile and leather components, but these fragile organic materials rarely survive.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1075
Northern Italian
made in Milan, Italy
“Peasecod” Breastplate,
1585–1590
etched steel with traces of blackening and gilding, and brass
weight: 4 lb. 8 oz.
The central ridge down the front of this breastplate deflected incoming weapons, while the exaggerated belly secured the belt that held the front and back plates together. This peasecod shape, as it was called, was also a fashion statement, paralleled in the silhouette of men’s jackets. The bands of etched ornament and rope-like edges also echo the decorative trim that adorned men’s civilian clothing.
The etched designs are referred to as trophies—representations of captured weapons, armor, and other treasures. These motifs expressed the wearer’s connection to the legacy of ancient Rome and to victory in battle.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1133.2.1
Spanish or Italian
Man’s Jacket (Doublet),
1590–1600
silk lampas with gold and silver, leather, silk, and brass
This close-fitting man’s jacket, or doublet, derived from the padded jackets worn under armor. The plunging peasecod belly and trimmed flaps called piccadills bordering the waist and armholes mimic the features of contemporary breastplates. Braided silver wire wound around silk thread forms the trim, which accentuates the contour of the torso while also concealing the seams. This stylish garment is made of silk fabric woven with intersecting scrolls punctuated with pomegranates in raised loops of gold- and silver-wrapped threads.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 132:1951
Bernart van Orley,
Flemish, 1492–1541
made in Brussels, Belgium
Tapestry, Scene from the Story of David and Bathsheba, about 1535
wool, linen, and silk
In the center of a dramatic scene from the Bible, King David’s son and heir, King Solomon, orders the death of his brother to prevent him from seizing the throne. Fully on display in this tapestry are the sumptuous fabrics and voluminous fashions of dress in the 1530s. Imported “cloth of gold”—produced in Italy from gold-wrapped silk threads—envelops the king and forms the pleated hose of his servant, in the foreground, who reacts to the king’s message. Other costume details, such as puffed and slashed sleeves, woven trims, and smooth-stockinged calves, show the shared styling and ornamentation of armor and clothing.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Leopold R. Gellert 343:1955
Italian
Half-Armor for Foot Combat at the Barriers, 1600–1610
steel (formerly blued) with gilding, modern leather, and fabric
weight: 28 lb. 12 oz.
This armor retains its original gilding, which defines an allover pattern of crescent shapes. The crescents appear as deep brown color, but were probably once a brilliant peacock blue. In its earlier coloration, this half-armor for sporting combat on foot “at the barriers” would have dazzled opponents and spectators alike. Leg armor was unnecessary in these contests since the barriers protected the fighters below the waist. The crest of the helmet, however, bears evidence of repeated blows. This armor was likely made for a member of the powerful Strozzi family of Florence, Italy, who still owned it in the 18th century.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 230:1923a-g
Southern German
probably made in Augsburg, Germany
Morion-Burgonet, 1585
etched steel, blackened and fire-gilt, and brass
weight: 3 lb. 10 oz.
This morion-burgonet’s stylized curves are based on Renaissance imaginings of ancient Roman helmets. The etched decoration includes elements of armor, shields, swords, and other symbols from antiquity. The date 1585 can be seen on a small, curving band at the front end of the comb. The helmet was probably worn by a bodyguard for a noble family.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.26
Italian
probably made in Milan, Italy
Infantry Breastplate, about 1580
blued steel
weight: 5 lb. 14 oz.
Protecting armor from rust was a constant challenge. Surface treatments, however, offered a degree of protection. For example, fire bluing involved coating the metal with oil and then applying heat. This created a stable oxide layer on the surface that resisted rust while also adding a pleasing color to the metal. Although now black, this breastplate was originally fire blued. Since bluing can be easily removed by polishing, it rarely survives intact.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.755.1
Willem de Passe, Dutch, 1598–1637
Magdalena de Passe, Dutch, about 1596−1638
Crispijn de Passe I, Dutch, 1565–1637
made in Arnhem, the Netherlands
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, from the book The History of English Heroes, 1620
engraving
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales and heir to the English throne, died of typhoid in 1612 at the age of 18. In this print, he is depicted in life armed for combat at the barriers, wielding a pike and dressed in half-armor of peasecod, or bulging, form. His breastplate and nearby plumed helmet feature etched linear decoration, like that on his pleated and fluted hose.
The prince’s death was mourned in Henry Holland’s 1620 The History of English Heroes. While most of the book’s entries are accompanied by a single portrait, Henry Frederick’s also includes a depiction of his body laid in state and in this moment of action.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Dr. Moyer S. Fleisher 110:1963
Northern Italian
made in Milan, Italy
Three-Quarter Field Armor, possibly for Henry Herbert, Second Earl of Pembroke,
1560–1570
steel (formerly blued) with gilding, brass, iron with modern leather
weight: 43 lb. 4 oz.
The breastplate of this field armor imitates the shape of a man’s civilian jacket, and the etched and gilded bands replicate its embroidered trims. English noblemen at the time of Queen Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603) looked to Milan, Italy, for the latest fashions in armor. This well-tailored suit comes from the family armory of the Earls of Pembroke. It was probably made for the second Earl, Henry Herbert. He was a noted patron of the arts, and in later years became a supporter of William Shakespeare’s theatrical company.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.12, 2014.1169.1
French
Ceremonial Half-Armor with “Repoussé” Decoration,
about 1580–1610
steel with traces of gilding and leather
weight: 19 lb. 10 oz.
Every inch of this half-armor is covered with figures, scrolls, and other ornamental motifs hammered, or embossed, in low relief. The background was originally gilded to enrich the metal and provide contrast for the raised decoration.
The central figures on the breastplate represent Mars, ancient Roman god of war, and Venus, goddess of love. These deities and other imagery symbolize peace and prosperity, fitting for an armor designed for civilian rather than military use. Some examples were made purely for ceremonial purposes, particularly embossed armor, since the elaborate hammering weakened the metal and rendered it useless for combat.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.70
Look!
Gauntlets
Look closely…
Imagine a team of athletes playing hockey or football.
They wear a ton of safety gear, including sturdy, cushioned gloves to shield their hands.
The same goes for knights. Slip your hand into a mitten-style gauntlet to experience its protective and moveable features.
A Changing Battlefield
By the late 1500s, armor was beginning to lose the arms race against gunpowder weapons. To make the steel resistant to muskets and pistols, armor needed to become thicker and therefore heavy. Foot soldiers began to focus on protecting only the head and torso, and cavalry armor rarely covered below the knee.
Gunpowder also changed military tactics. Charging knights in full armor gave way to massed formations of foot soldiers carrying pikes or firearms supported by cannons. Cavalry continued to play an important role, but the knights of old had effectively disappeared.
Despite its declining use on the battlefield, armor retained its ceremonial and symbolic functions. Some elements, such as breastplates, helmets, two-handed swords, and staff weapons, were created specifically for honor guards. These arms and armor were made to practical standards, but there was little chance they would ever be used in combat.
Look!
Armadillo
Look closely…
What similarities do you see between the armor nearby and the armadillo?
lf you spotted the overlapping plates-good eye!
Those on the armor allowed a knight to run, jump, and move freely -even ride a horse. Just like the armadillo, the plates provide a good defense.
Southern German
made in Augsburg, Germany
Three-Quarter Armor for a Cuirassier, 1620–1625
steel and brass with modern leather
weight: 47 lb. 1 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1135
German
perhaps made in Suhl, Germany
Wheel-Lock Holster Pistol,
about 1625–1650
steel, iron, and walnut wood
weight: 2 lb. 6 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.376
German or Dutch
“Pappenheimer” Sword,
about 1630s
steel, iron, and wood
weight: 3 lb. 8 oz.
By 1600, the fully armored knight charging with a lance was replaced with the cuirassier, armed with a pair of pistols and a sword. To protect against gunfire, the armor was made of heavier steel, and to reduce weight, it did not extend below the knee. The high waist and bulging thigh armor reflect contemporary men’s fashion. Yet ornament is restricted to beveled and shaped edges, brass-capped rivets, and engraved lines.
This helmet, called a Zischägge, takes its name and features such as the nasal guard, articulated neck guard, and domed crown with finial from Turkish helmets called Chichak. Central European armor borrowed from Turkish designs, reflecting the impact of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) as it expanded into southeastern Europe.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.348
Southern German
made in Augsburg, Germany
Field Armor, from a Small Garniture, perhaps for Siegmund Friedrich, Freiherr von Herberstein
(d. 1621), about 1580, with modern restorations
steel with etching and gilding, iron, brass, leather fragments and modern leather with restorations
weight: 41 lb. 6 oz.
This armor is part of a garniture made with additional “exchange pieces.” These were identically decorated and could be added to the armor to adapt it for different uses. An infantry officer could have worn this armor as it is displayed. A light cavalryman might have sported a similar configuration for scouting or skirmishing.
The helmet features a pronounced comb and projecting visor with a face-concealing defense that retracts downward, called a falling buffe. These elements convey a menacing, inhuman appearance. Despite its intimidating effect, this armor is finely made with rope-turned edges. Etched and gilded linear patterns inspired by Islamic designs enrich the breastplate, helmet, and edges of each articulated plate, or lame.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.660
Italian
Partisan,
late 1500s–early 1600s
steel, brass, and wood with textiles
weight: 4 lb. 12 oz.
Partisans and halberds, like those seen nearby, were originally simple weapons of war. By the 1600s, however, their role was largely ceremonial. Metalsmiths forged the broad surfaces of the blade into fanciful graphic shapes and often embellished the long staffs with vibrant fabrics and tassels. As weapons, they could be used not only to keep threats at a distance but also to create an imposing presence when carried upright by a large group of bodyguards.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.198
possibly English
Halberd, early 1600s
steel, wood, and iron
weight: 4 lb. 4 oz.
Halberds were originally developed as staff weapons against knights on horseback. By the 1600s, they were largely badges of office for sergeants of infantry. The axe blade and beak on this example are no longer functional—only the spear point was usable in combat.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.124
helmet possibly by Richard
Wright, English, d. 1654
Helmet and Composite Half-Armor for a Pikeman, about 1625–1645
steel with modern leather
weight: 16 lb. 4 oz.
For protection in close combat, pikemen wore head and torso armor. The flaring upper leg defenses resemble the bulging thighs of men’s civilian clothing of the time (see image). The tassets are embossed and riveted to imitate the earlier laminated construction. Minimally decorated, this armor is studded with rows of rivets and adorned with engraved lines.
Pikemen carried spears, called pikes, which measured up to 18 feet long. They fought on foot in formations to defend musketeers from attacking cavalry. Musketeers, named for the long firearms they carried, wore no armor and needed safeguarding as they reloaded their weapons.
By the end of the 1600s, the pike was replaced by the bayonet. The bayonet attached to the end of the musket turned it into a short spear that could protect the musketeer at close quarters. Every musketeer was now his own pikeman, and armor largely vanished from the battlefield.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1167, 2014.789
possibly by Robert Willemsz. de Baudous, Flemish, born 1574–1575, died after 1656; after Jacques de Gheyn II, Dutch, 1565–1629; workshop of Jacques de Gheyn II, Dutch, 1565-1629; A Soldier Carrying His Pike at the Slope, from the Lansquenets series, plate 11, in Waffenhandlung von den Roren Musquetten undt Spiessen (The Exercise of Arms), published 1608; engraving; second state of two (New Hollstein); Sheet: 10 1/4 x 7 3/8 inches; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Elisha Whittelsey Collection, The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1949 49.95.1207
probably German
Matchlock Musket, about 1600
steel, iron, and walnut wood
weight: 12 lb. 4 oz.
When the shooter grasped the trigger of this musket, a slow-burning match-cord would rotate to touch and ignite the gunpowder in the pan at the top of the lock, thus firing the weapon. Once powerful firearms like this appeared, they dominated European battlefields and posed a real threat to armored soldiers. A musket shot could pierce most armor. However, the weapon itself was heavy and awkward to use.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.13
Master H.W.,
German, active 1630–1680
Pair of Wheel-Lock Holster Pistols, about 1650
steel, snakewood, bone or horn, gilt brass, and iron
weight: 2 lb. 8 oz. Each
By the 1600s, armored heavy cavalry were abandoning the lance in favor of pistols like this exceptional pair. Each is ornamented with engraved bone inlay and gilded brass pommels. Horsemen would ride close to their target to discharge their pistols, then circle around again to charge with swords drawn.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.433.1,2
probably German or Austrian
Breastplate from a Siege Cuirass,
1590–1600
iron and brass with black paint
weight: 24 lb. 10 oz.
Though impractical for field combat by the 1600s, armor continued to be used for siege operations against fortifications. The broad, shallow indentation over the heart on this heavy breastplate is probably a proofmark indicating the steel was resistant to firearms. Multiple bullet marks on its surface suggest that this armor saved its owner’s life more than once.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.4.1
Swiss
Sapper’s Helmet,
1600s
iron with paint and leather
weight: 19 lb. 14 oz.
This heavy helmet was worn by a sapper, an engineer specializing in siege works where mobility was less important. The dent is probably a proofmark, demonstrating that the steel was capable of resisting a musket shot.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1106
German
Gorget, 1590–1610
steel and leather
weight: 2 lb. 15 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.788
British
Officer’s Gorget, 1770s
silver
weight: 3 oz.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.786
Dutch
Gorget for an Officer of the City Militia,
late 1700s
gilt brass
weight: 7 oz.
Gorgets are neck guards, originally worn under breast- and backplates to help distribute their weight. After 1600, many soldiers stopped using these elements of torso armor, but some officers continued to wear the gorget as a military fashion statement. Over time, this once plain, but protective, piece of armor became a type of decorative adornment. Soldiers wore a smaller version of the gorget as a badge of rank as late as the American Revolution (1775–1783).
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.5
Dutch
Pikeman’s Armor with Helmet for a Harquebusier, Later Decorated for Ceremonial Use,
about 1625–1650,
decorated in 1700s steel, iron, and paint with modern leather
weight: 16 lb. 10 oz.
As armor lost its military value, stockpiles remained in the armories of European kings and noblemen. This armor from the British Royal Armouries combines the torso armor of a foot soldier with the helmet of a lightly-armored cavalryman known as a harquebusier. Together, they appear to have been decorated with radiating patterns of gilded stars for a ceremonial occasion sometime in the 1700s.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1132
Italian
probably made in Milan, Italy
Keyhole Plate Made from a Breastplate,
about 1555–1560, with later alterations
etched and blackened steel
weight: 2 lb. 14 oz.
When armor became obsolete, it was likely to be repurposed or cut up for scrap. This object was once a highly decorated breastplate, but was later reshaped and flattened to serve as a keyhole plate for a large door.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.682
Italian
perhaps made in Brescia, Italy
Half-Armor for a Member of the Papal Guard,
1570–1590
blued and engraved steel with gilding, brass, modern leather, and velvet
Engraved and gilded foliate scrolls emerge from a grotesque mask in the center of this blued-steel half-armor. The suit belongs to a group of similar examples likely repurposed from earlier combat armor and redecorated for use by the Papal Guard. None that survive have helmets—they were probably meant to be worn with stylish hats instead.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.1137
Johann Wilhelm Baur, German, 1607–1642
Battles of Various Nations, 1633
Etchings
left to right, top to bottom:
German Battle
Italian Battle
Turkish Battle
Spanish Battle
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of James Bergquist, Boston, in honor of Elizabeth Wyckoff 29:2020.1, 29:2020.6, 29:2020.12, 29:2020.11
Johann Wilhelm Baur, German, 1607–1642
Dedication, from the series Battles of Various Nations, 1633
etching
Images of battles were produced in an ongoing, if ever-shifting, state of war in Europe during the 1600s. Plentiful examples exist, from mural paintings to print series such as these. Scenes of warfare offered artists like Johann Wilhelm Baur an opportunity to demonstrate their skill at composing multiple bodies twisting in motion. Rather than depict specific battles, Baur categorized along national lines. These divisions, however, were never as clear-cut as such practices of visual classification made them seem.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of James Bergquist, Boston, in honor of Elizabeth Wyckoff 29:2020.14
Jacques Callot, French, 1592–1635
The Military Exercises, published 1635
etchings
left to right, top to bottom:
Drill with Halberds
Drill with Vertical Pikes
Drill with Horizontal Pikes
Musket Drill: Firing
Cannon Drill: Aiming
Cannon Drill: Firing
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Henry V. Putzel 198:1956, 199:1956, 200:1956, 204:1956, 206:1956, 207:1956
Jacques Callot, French, 1592–1635
Frontispiece, from the series The Military Exercises, published 1635
etching
Titled “The Military Exercises,” this series extracts combatants from the field of battle in a small format that Jacques Callot explored to great effect. The focus turns to the bodily engagement of fighting. Soldiers learn to handle staff arms like pikes and halberds, and how to fire matchlock muskets, called harquebuses, as well as cannons.
The potential violence and chaos of actual military warfare is reduced to these rule-bound, preparatory exercises. Callot pioneered developments in etching tools and materials that gave him greater control over the delicate, fine lines that compose these figures.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Henry V. Putzel 195:1956
German
Two-Handed Sword, about 1600
steel and iron with stamped decoration, modern wood, leather, and textiles
weight: 7 lb. 15 oz.
Nearly six feet in length, this sword is large even by battlefield standards. Despite its menacing double-edged blade and broad, sharpened point, it was probably never wielded in combat. Two-handed swords were at their height of use around 1500. By the time this example was made a century later, they served chiefly for ceremonial purposes, carried by the entourages of political and military leaders.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.126
Italian
Partisan, 1500−1550
steel, wood, and brass
weight: 5 lb.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 450:1919
American
made in Massachusetts
Halberd of the “Trained Band,” 1678
steel and wood, probably maple
weight: 3 lb. 12 oz.
This halberd displays the year 1678 and belonged to a sergeant in a trained band, a militia maintained by every New England community. Halberds were used in America as late as the Revolutionary War (1775–1783).
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.69
Master MR, German
made in Nuremberg, Germany
Comb Morion for the Guard of Christian I or II, Electors of Saxony, about 1585−1595
blackened steel with etched and gilded decoration, brass, textile, and leather
weight: 4 lb.
Etched and gilded borders, medallions, and lion-mask bosses ornament this blackened-steel comb morion. By the late 1500s, this type of helmet was popular throughout Western Europe. It was light, gave adequate protection, and provided good visibility.
This example was used by the personal guard of the Electors of Saxony during the reigns of Christian I and Christian II (1586–1611). These powerful German princes maintained a guard of 200 horsemen and foot soldiers who wore matching armor and uniforms with black-and-gold decoration, imitating the colors of the Saxon coat of arms.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.48
perhaps Italian
Target (Shield) with Breech-Loading Gun, about 1540
wood, steel, tinned iron, brass, and fabric with paint and modern restorations
weight: 9 lb. 10 oz.
This small shield combines a defensive function with an offensive one, as it conceals a gun mounted on the reverse side. Although innovative, these weapons were never successful as military gear. The design required the gun to be loaded from the rear, or breech. However, Renaissance technology could not create a perfect seal when closing the breech—a dangerous possibility that could cause the gunpowder to explode in the wrong direction. Breech-loading weapons were not common until the late 1800s.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.768
Armor in the Modern Age
Although plate armor fell out of widespread military use more than 300 years ago, it never entirely disappeared. Specialized troops wore it into the 1800s, and traditional armor remains in use for ceremonial purposes. In the early 1900s, battlefield armor was revived during World War I (1914-1918) in the form of the steel helmet, which often made direct reference to European models from the 1400s.
Armor permeates the present day, from keeping soldiers safe to creating personas for pop-culture characters. Innovations in design and materials, for example, have evolved with modern warfare to better protect both servicemen and women. Fictional armor has also featured prominently in films such as Star Wars and more recently, Black Panther.
As in the past, armor allows us to reimagine ourselves as more powerful, more self-reliant, and more invulnerable to the perils of the world around us.
French
made at Châtellerault Arsenal,
Alsace, France
Armor for a Carabinier,
1863–1865
steel with brass, leather, and horsehair
weight: 20 lb. 6 oz.
Armor lost its military importance by the late 1600s, but it never entirely vanished. In the 1800s, it was still used in battle by heavy cavalry. Though ultimately derived from the armor of the medieval knight, this example is redesigned to echo the styles of ancient Rome.
As late as the beginning of World War I (1914–1918), horsemen rode to the front lines in armor comparable to this. Yet it was quickly abandoned in the face of machine guns and trench warfare. Today, such armor is reserved for a few elite military units in Europe, who wear it for ceremonial occasions.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.90
Indian, Mughal dynasty, 1526–1858
reign of Akbar, Mughal, reigned 1556–1605
Khem Karan, Indian, active about 1580–about 1605
Siege of Baghdad, folio from an illuminated manuscript of the History of Genghis Khan, 1596
ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
In this painting of the Siege of Baghdad (in present-day Iraq) in 1258, the Mongol conqueror Hulāgu Khan (1218–1265), a grandson of Genghis Khan (about 1162–1227), is the most important figure. Along with their richly patterned and colored clothing, he and his mounted troops wear characteristic Indian-style armor. These include turban-shaped helmets with top spikes and long mail neck guards, mail shirts, and vambraces or armguards. This depiction of warfare in the 1200s includes bows, spears, and matchlock muskets. These gunpowder weapons were not in widespread use until the 1500s when this illustration was made.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of J. Lionberger Davis 388:1952
Indian, Mughal dynasty, 1526–1858
reign of Akbar, Mughal, reigned 1556–1605
A Wise Man with Soldiers, 1604
ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
A Muslim sheikh—a respected elder and spiritual leader—rides a black horse accompanied by a military escort. The soldiers’ arms and armor include curved swords in ornamented scabbards, a spear, a matchlock musket, and a spiral-embossed steel shield. In the distance, each elephant-mounted rider carries an ankus, a hooked and bladed implement used for directing these powerful animals.
The illustration records an event from the Akbarnama (Book of Akbar), commissioned in 1590 by Emperor Akbar of India (1542–1605) to trace his illustrious ancestry and the accomplishments of his reign.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of J. Lionberger Davis 390:1952
Nagasone Tojiro Mitsumasa,
Japanese, early 1600s
Helmet in the form of a Sea-Conch Shell, 1618
iron with traces of lacquer, and textiles
weight: 3 lb. 13 oz.
Flamboyant “extraordinary helmets” (kawari-kabuto) were worn by military leaders in late feudal Japan. Such helmets distinguished them from uniformly armored foot soldiers and brilliantly attired samurai.
A masterpiece of metalwork, this example likely belonged to one of the most important men in the country at the time of the shōgun, or military governor, Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616). It was so admired that several copies were made. The helmet is sculpted like a sea-conch shell with a brim textured like stingray skin. It originally had a neck guard of lacquered iron plates laced together with brightly colored silk.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.89.1
Northern Indian
Kulah Khud (Helmet),
1600s, with later modifications
iron, brass, silver, and gold
weight: 2 lb. 12 oz.
When the Mughals, a Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin, invaded India around 1500, they shared the artistic traditions of Persia (present-day Iran), including arms and armor. The kulah khud is the most common type of Persian helmet. One of many variants of the widespread Islamic form, it features a rounded skull, top spike, and mail neck guard. On this helmet, however, the embossed and inlaid patterns representing a lotus flower are typically Indian. The mail is exceptionally fine, composed of tiny riveted links. It was designed to drape in front of the eyes to shield them from the sun.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.88
Sudanese
Helmet, 1800s
russeted iron with gilding
weight: 5 lb. 9 oz.
The gold-covered surface of this helmet suggests it was for an emir, a high-ranking Islamic military leader. The overall shape and mail neck guard resemble Muslim types like the Indian kulah khud in this case. Yet the conical form and arrow-shaped noseguard are specific to Sudan.
This helmet was probably worn during the Sudanese uprising of the late 1800s, one of the last conflicts in which medieval-style weapons and armor were widely used. The revolt sought to overthrow the Egyptian and British colonial rulers who controlled the Sudan.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.91
Indian, Mughal dynasty, 1526–1858
Body Armor of Four Pieces,
1776–1777
steel with gold overlay and cotton
weight: 6 lb. Each
Called char-aina, or “four mirrors,” this plate armor would have been worn over a mail coat and secured to the torso with leather straps. Each body-conforming plate is made from high-quality carbon steel called wootz, which has a distinctive wavy or water pattern. The borders and medallions in gold contain inscriptions of Koranic verse, wishes of good fortune, and the date 1189 in the Muslim calendar.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 34:1915a-d
Persian, Zand dynasty, 1751–1794, or
Qājār dynasty, 1785–1925
Cap Helmet (Kulah Khud) with Design of Interlaced Vines, Arabic Inscriptions, and Mail Neck Curtain, 1700s
steel with gold overlay
weight: 4 lb.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 70:1921
Persian, Qājār dynasty, 1785–1925
Shield, 1857
steel with gold overlay and leather
weight: 5 lb.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 33:1915
OCP Pattern Woman’s Female Improved Outer Tactical Vest (FIOTV), Generation IV,
December 2013
nylon, Velcro, and Kevlar insert
weight: 14 lb. 3 oz.
Innovative ceramic materials replace steel for modern body armor like this Improved Outer Tactical Vest (IOTV). Developed by the United States Army, it has been deployed since 2007. Recently, the Army has redesigned IOTV’s that are better suited in size and shape for female service members. Fully outfitted with neck and groin protection, an IOTV weighs approximately 30 pounds. Even today, armor must balance defensive protection with mobility.
Courtesy of the National Infantry Museum, U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2023.123
American
manufactured by Worcester Pressed Steel, United States, 1905–1975
Prototype Experimental Helmet Model 2, 1917
steel
weight: 2 lb.
Helmets returned to the modern battlefield after 1900. Without a tradition of armor design, United States military leaders looked to historical models for inspiration. This experimental helmet was produced for the Department of War during World War I (1914–1918). The designer was Bashford Dean, curator of armor at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, who based his helmet on medieval examples.
In order to create and assess the prototype, Dean turned to steel industrialist John Woodman Higgins of Worcester, Massachusetts. Their collaboration set Higgins on the path to building America’s second-largest collection of armor.
Worcester Art Museum, The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection, 2014.2
First Order Stormtrooper
from Star Wars: The Last Jedi, 2017
One of cinema history’s most iconic suits of armor belongs to the stormtrooper, featured in a variety of armor styles throughout the Star Wars galaxy. Meant to inspire fear, the white plate armor of this First Order stormtrooper mimics how both medieval armor and contemporary military gear is designed to shield key areas of the body while allowing for ease of movement. The full-coverage helmet protects the head and neck from blaster fire while also concealing the stormtrooper’s identity. This loss of individuality visually underscores that the First Order’s rulers and armies are part of the same evil, inhumane force.
Loan Courtesy of the Walt Disney Archives 2023.119
Black Panther Suit
from Black Panther, 2018
Costume designer Ruth E. Carter used angular shapes, especially triangles, to form raised patterns on this suit worn by T’Challa, King of Wakanda, in Marvel Studios’ Black Panther. An all-encompassing armor, it merges practical defenses found in modern protective gear with fantastical designs that establish a visual identity for the character.
Carter interpreted and combined Afrofuturism aesthetics, new fashion technologies, and multiple cultures to create the film’s pan-African costumes. Recognizing the prevalence of geometric motifs on royal arts from across the continent, Carter chose these patterns for the suit to underscore T’Challa’s status as both superhero and African king.
Courtesy of Marvel Studios 2023.120