March 14–August 16, 2026
Entrance in Taylor Hall, East Building
Under the emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117 CE), the Roman Empire reached the height of its geographic expanse, encompassing over three million square miles throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. Drawing from art in Rome, its port city Ostia, Pompeii, and beyond, this exhibition highlights Trajan’s investment in art and architecture and its impact on Roman civic life. A time of great prosperity for the empire, the arts flourished during Trajan’s reign. The imperial family crafted their powerful identities in marble sculptures and on coins. In both private and public spaces, Romans sought to achieve a balance between leisure and business. Frescoes, decorations in bronze, and garden sculptures from the homes of the wealthy demonstrate the role of art in their lives. Jewelry, religious statuary, and vessels used to transport food convey ideas about class and citizenship and Rome’s thriving trade and multiculturalism. Trajan also supported social programs, like financial assistance and education for children living in poverty, and building projects, including the Forum, Markets, and Baths that bear his name. Most famously, his spiraling column, still standing today, chronicles his achievements as a military and religious leader who shaped the course of the Roman Empire. Recognized by the Senate as Optimus Princeps (best emperor), Trajan’s enduring legacy speaks to the visual, political, and social power of art.
Ancient Splendor: Roman Art in the Time of Trajan is co-organized by StArt and Saint Louis Art Museum.
The exhibition is curated by Lucrezia Ungaro, archaeological curator of the city of Rome.
The exhibition is sponsored with generous support from the Betsy & Thomas Patterson Foundation.
Additional support provided by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, Husch Blackwell LLP, Dr. Barry and Victoria Singer, and donors to the Trajan Society.
The Saint Louis Art Museum is generously funded in part by SLAM Members and donors, the citizens of the City of St. Louis and St. Louis County, and the Zoo Museum District.
Gallery 248
Help us care for the artworks.
Even gentle contact can cause damage. To preserve these original works of art, please do not touch, and keep a safe distance.
from Tivoli, Italy
Matidia as Thalia, Muse of Comedy, 120–138 CE
marble
Wearing a lavish headdress with vines and bunches of grapes, this bust of Thalia, muse of comedy, is also a portrait of Matidia. Daughter of Marciana, Matidia was Trajan and Plotina’s niece, raised in the imperial court as their own child. As the mother of Sabina, Matidia was also Hadrian’s much-beloved mother-in-law. This bust likely belonged to a pair of colossal statues that decorated the entrance to the Maritime Theatre at Hadrian’s Villa, his sumptuous residence near the ancient city of Tibur (modern-day Tivoli).
Vatican Museums, Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican City, 262 2026.09
from an area near Piazza Venezia,
Rome, Italy
Head of Sabina Wearing a Veil, c.136–138 CE
marble
This bust represents Sabina, daughter of Matidia, grandniece to Trajan, and wife of Hadrian. Her mature appearance suggests the portrait was made after her death and deification. She wears a simple, parted hairstyle and is crowned with a diadem and veil. Found near Trajan’s Forum in Rome, the bust still shows traces of red paint inside the veil, a reminder that these now-white marble sculptures were once brilliantly colored.
The National Roman Museum, 629 2026.89
from Rome, Italy
Bust of Marciana, beginning of the 2nd century CE
marble
Trajan’s beloved elder sister, Marciana, appears in many surviving statues and coins with her characteristic vertical, scalloped hairstyle. The resemblance to her brother— particularly the brows, thin pursed lips, and chin—is evident. Acting as his right hand in decision making and social policy initiatives, Marciana was a heroine of Trajan’s reign, deified after her death and given the title of Diva (divine).
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6195 2026.15
from Rieti, Italy
Bust of Hadrian, 128–130 CE
marble
This stately bust of Hadrian shows Trajan’s successor as a mature military leader. His face is framed by curls, from the ringlets on his head to the beard covering his cheeks. This revolutionary style of imperial portraiture—distinct from the clean-shaven look of Trajan and earlier emperors—became influential in the second century CE. Hadrian, the son of Trajan’s first cousin, was orphaned at the age of 10 and raised by Trajan and Plotina, who adopted him on Trajan’s deathbed to secure his succession.
The National Roman Museum, 172224 2026.87
IMPERIAL PORTRAITURE
Statues and portrait busts—often originally from larger sculptures—are some of the most compelling documents of ancient Roman culture. Representations of emperors and their families not only served as political propaganda but also became models for how many people fashioned themselves throughout the empire.
Under Trajan, depictions of imperial male faces were simplified, blending realism and idealism. Firm features, short hair, and clean-shaven faces connect back to the first emperor, Augustus (reigned 27 BCE–14 CE), and highlight the authority and dignity the emperor wished to communicate. Trajan’s successor, Hadrian, continued the long-standing legacy of imperial portraits that conveyed military strength, but he also adopted the Greek tradition of men sporting beards.
Portraits of the female members of Trajan’s family showcase a range of archetypes for women: stern imperial matriarchs, personifications of Greco-Roman mythological figures, and priestesses of Roman religion.
Roman imperial portraits not only illustrate the physical appearance of these historical figures but also communicate the empire’s ideals, which wealthy Roman citizens adapted into their own lives and visions of themselves.
from Minturno, Italy
Statue of Trajan, end of the 1st century–beginning of the 2nd century CE
marble
Wearing military dress, Trajan appears as an authoritative commander of the Roman army. His cuirass, or breastplate, features both decorative and allegorical elements. Minerva (Greek: Athena), goddess of wisdom and warfare, poses at the center in a fighting stance. A statuette in her hand recalls Roma, the divine personification of Rome. Nearly seven feet tall and weighing over 2,500 pounds, this imposing image was Trajan’s official portrait type for the first decade of his reign. The head is not original to the statue but was added during restorations in the 18th century.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6072 2026.16
William Richard Smith, British, 1787–after 1839; after James Hakewill, British, 1778–1843; Arch of Trajan at Ancona, from A Picturesque Tour of Italy, 1818; engraving; 8 15/16 x 11 7/8 inches; The British Museum, London 1868, 0822.3802; © The Trustees of the British Museum
Gallery 253A
TRAJAN AND THE IMPERIAL FAMILY
Marcus Ulpius Traianus—Trajan—was the first Roman emperor from outside the Italian peninsula. Born in Hispania (present-day Andalusia, Spain) in 53 CE, Trajan followed in the footsteps of his father, Traianus Pater, and pursued a successful military career. A smart strategist and leader, he fought alongside his men, earning their absolute support and loyalty.
Meanwhile, the emperor Nerva (reigned 96–98 CE) was facing social and economic issues within the empire after the assassination of the previous ruler, Domitian (reigned 81–96 CE). To restore order, and without children of his own, the elderly Nerva adopted Trajan as his successor. Trajan’s popularity, coupled with lobbying from the senators of Hispania, secured his position.
Trajan therefore became the second emperor in the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, a line of succession based on adoption rather than birth. The first five emperors of this dynasty are called “The Five Good Emperors” because of the harmony and prosperity they fostered in the empire, especially Trajan. He and his wife, Plotina, did not have biological children. Instead, the dynasty was formed through strategic relationships to the women in Trajan’s family. For example, Trajan’s grandniece Sabina married Hadrian (reigned 117–138 CE), who was also adopted by Trajan as his successor.
from Rome, Italy
Bust of an Unknown Man, 2nd century CE
marble
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 299:1923
from Rome, Italy
Head of a Man, 2nd century CE
marble
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Shop Fund, and funds given by The Arthur and Helen Baer Charitable Foundation, Mr. Christian B. Peper, and donors to the 1984 Art Enrichment Fund; and Museum Purchase, J. Lionberger Davis, Friends Endowment Fund, and Mrs. Dora Gilula, by exchange 108:1989
These two portraits of unknown men share several characteristics. Both were made during the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, of which Trajan was the second emperor. Their beards and deeply drilled curls date them more specifically to after Hadrian, the third emperor in this dynasty (reigned 117–138 CE).
Under Trajan and the emperors that preceded him, Romans had associated beards with foreigners, such as the Dacians from present-day Romania. However, when Hadrian began to wear a beard in admiration of earlier Greek culture, it set a trend among Roman men. These sculptures show how portraits of the imperial family continually influenced the ways in which citizens fashioned their own images.
from Rome, Italy
Colossal Bust of Trajan, post-117 CE
marble
Vatican Museums, Chiaramonti Museum, Vatican City, 1931 2026.12
from Rome, Italy
Colossal Bust of Plotina, 112/114 CE
marble
Vatican Museums, Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican City, 240 2026.08
Trajan and his wife, Plotina, were a power couple. These colossal works portray them as benevolent, deified leaders of the Roman Empire. Made immediately after his death in 117 CE, Trajan’s bust was excavated from Portus, the artificial port he significantly expanded near Ostia, between the Tiber River and the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Plotina is depicted as an austere and regal empress wearing a stephane (crown) upon her braided hair. She resembles her portraits on imperial coins, like those seen nearby, emphasizing the importance of wide-spread recognition of the imperial family.
Under Trajan, imperial women played significant roles in shaping imperial policies. Plotina, renowned for her intelligence and interest in philosophy, persuaded Trajan to adopt some of his most important reforms: fairer taxation, education, and financial assistance for orphans and those living in poverty.
from Lyon, France
Aureus with Augustus (Obverse) and Gaius and Lucius Caesar (Reverse),
gold
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 271:1991
from Rome, Italy
Aureus with Trajan (Obverse) and Nerva and Trajan Senior (Reverse), 112/113 CE
gold
The National Roman Museum, 87319 2026.84
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Trajan (Obverse) and Virtus (Reverse), 114–117 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 278:1991
from Rome, Italy
Aureus with Marciana (Obverse) and Eagle (Reverse), 112/117 CE
gold
The National Roman Museum, 87318 2026.86
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Plotina (Obverse) and Vesta, Goddess of the Hearth (Reverse), 112/114 CE
silver
The National Roman Museum, 88691 2026.83
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Hadrian (Obverse) and Crescent Moon and Seven Stars (Reverse), 125–134 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 280:1991
from Rome, Italy
Aureus with Faustina the Elder (Obverse) and Fortuna (Reverse), after 141 CE
gold
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 260:1991
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Lucius Verus (Obverse) and Parthia (Reverse), 165 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 283:1991
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Marcus Aurelius (Obverse) and Pax (Reverse), c.165 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 284:1991
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Faustina the Younger (Obverse) and Vesta (Reverse), 156–175 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 285:1991
Coins
In addition to commemorating major events, coins were issued across the Roman Empire to establish family ties within the imperial line. Since many emperors adopted their heirs, coinage helped present these lineages-by-adoption to the public, who encountered the coins on a daily basis.
An early example is the aureus minted by Augustus (reigned 27 BCE–14 CE) with his adopted grandsons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, both of whom died young. Trajan continued this practice, with a coin depicting his portrait on one side and the dual portraits of his biological and adopted fathers on the reverse. He also issued many coins illustrating the women in his family, including his wife, Plotina, and sister Marciana. Coins minted in honor of later emperors and empresses of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty are also displayed here.
Gallery 258
DECORATING THE DOMUS
Rather than a private sanctuary, the domus (home) of Roman elites was an extension of the public realm. Day-to-day business was conducted in the household, where the owner received clients and visitors and hosted extravagant dinner parties. Upper-class homes were elaborately decorated with furnishings that showcased a family’s wealth, artistic and cultural tastes, and religious beliefs.
Atrium-style homes were one of the most common types of residence (see image). They were centered around a peristyle—a courtyard and garden surrounded by columns. The front entryways were highly ornamental, with views through the threshold revealing the grandeur within. The atrium and garden provided light to the remainder of the house, around which other rooms, like cubiculi (bedrooms), the tablinum (office), and the triclinium (dining room), were arranged.
Inside the house, mosaics and walls frescoed with mythological scenes served as a backdrop for the social activities carried out there. Furnishings of fine materials like marble, bronze, and wood formed a collection of props. The elite domus was a carefully constructed stage for performing one’s role in an ideal Roman family.
from Rome, Italy
Sconce with Dolphin, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 65859 2026.110
from Rome, Italy
Sconce with Dolphin, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 8047 2026.111
These ornaments embellished a Roman home alongside other decorations that attested to the owner’s wealth. In addition to the aesthetic delight they would have invoked, such figural representations carried symbolic meaning. Dolphins were linked with the Roman god of the sea, Neptune (Greek: Poseidon), and associated with sailors. They often appear on fountains and sconces, reminding Romans of their proximity and connection to the sea— and its importance in their lives.
from Pompeii, Italy
Paris, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
In a small medallion, Paris, the Prince of Troy in Greek mythology, is recognizable by the pileus, a pointed felt cap associated with his city. The representation of the young shepherd in the domus (home) was more than decorative: It would have reminded the occupants of the Judgement of Paris myth or Homer’s epic account of the Trojan War. Such frescoes sparked lively conversations at dinner parties, allowing guests to display their knowledge and impress their host.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 8981 2026.39
from Rome, Italy
Applique with a Feline, 1st century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 4607 2026.142
from the Sacellum of Silvanus, Ostia, Italy
Winged Cherub, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3557 2026.54
from Ostia, Italy
Ethiopian Boy, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3558 2026.55
from Ostia, Italy
Oil Lamp, 1st century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 4202 2026.50
Bronze Decorations
Romans adorned their homes with a variety of materials. Bronze appliques like those seen here were embellishments on wooden furniture, such as the arms of a couch. Because the metal far outlasts the wood it was once attached to, it is often all that remains of ancient Roman furnishings.
Ethiopian Boy, for example, may have decorated a lectus (dining couch). Demonstrating an interest in the extent of the empire’s borders under Trajan, these portrayals are generalized stereotypes of peoples from present-day sub- Saharan Africa. The bust likely personified a region of the empire, rather than depicting a specific person.
from Pompeii, Italy
Statue of a Young Boy, 1st century CE
marble
This young man wears a toga praetexta, marking him as a freeborn citizen and member of the Roman elite. Around his neck is a bulla, a leather or metal pendant containing an amulet meant to protect the wearer from supernatural forces. Bullae were worn by young men until they turned 17, the age of adulthood. Technical studies indicate the statue’s hair was recarved, likely to resemble the emperor Nero (reigned 54–68 CE). Wealthy Romans sought to model themselves after the imperial family, in appearance and lifestyle, even in portraits displayed within the home.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6229 2026.26
from Pompeii, Italy
Base of Candelabrum, 1st century CE
marble
The primary face of this three-sided marble structure features a winged female figure pouring a liquid offering onto a plate. The trapezoidal form rests upon three delicately carved lion paws, while egg-shaped elements called ovules decorate the uppermost surface. A lighting instrument—perhaps like the bronze oil lamp displayed in this gallery—would have sat on top, illuminating evening activities within the domus (home).
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6858 2026.44
from Rome, Italy
Ephebus, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
This statue of an adolescent boy, sometimes called an ephebus, is a type of object used to embellish Roman homes. Youthful figures could symbolize concepts such as childhood and beauty. Bronze decorations like this one, along with ornamentation in other metals like silver, attest to the wealth of the owner.
The National Roman Museum, 128570 2026.147
from Pompeii, Italy
Figure in Flight, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 8516 2026.31
from Rome, Italy
Table Leg (trapezophoron) with Griffin,1st–2nd century CE
bronze
This bronze table leg takes the form of a griffin, a mythological animal combining parts of a lion and an eagle. With its wings unfurled, the hybrid creature grips the base of the leg with a single talon. A curved, four-sided column with a decorative molding emerges from its head. Ornate yet functional, the leg, along with three others, would have supported a tabletop of marble or fine wood displaying vases, lamps, or other objects.
The National Roman Museum, 126105 2026.116
from Pietra Papa, Rome, Italy
Doorstep Mosaic, mid-2nd century CE
various marbles
The National Roman Museum, 121507 2026.148
Gallery 212S
ROMAN SCULPTURE: THEN AND NOW
Roman statuary looked very different in antiquity than it does today. When excavated, many sculptures were found in fragments and then restored for a more “complete” appearance. Looking closely at objects in marble, for example, reveals repairs along break lines, visible in the different colors and grains of the stone. Roman sculptures were also originally painted in vivid hues. Because the paint contained organic material, it disappeared over time, leaving these once brightly colored works now bare.
Romans also scented their sculptures. Primarily as a part of religious rituals, worshippers draped them with floral garlands or rubbed the surfaces with ointments. The perfumes were made of flowers and herbs mixed with wax or oil; rose was the most popular. Roman sculptures no longer retain any physical trace of these fragrances, but the custom is well documented by ancient writers.
Learn more about the smells of ancient Rome by using the scent boxes located throughout the exhibition.
Scents developed by The Institute for Digital Archaeology, Oxford, England.
from Pompeii, Italy
Apollo, 1st century CE
marble
Apollo, god of the sun, archery, and more, was famed for his beauty, seen in his elegantly posed, nude body and delicate facial features. His wavy hair is gathered in a knot on top of his head, a common style known as the Greek krobylos. One of the most popular deities in Pompeii, Apollo statues often appeared in domestic settings. This example demonstrates the extensive reproduction of Greek models of the god during the Roman period.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6277 2026.25
Gallery 257
THE ROMAN BANQUET
The Roman convivium, or banquet, was no ordinary dinner party. Translating to “living together,” it was a significant ritual that solidified familial bonds and community relationships as well as social rank. Due to Trajan’s extensive imperial campaigns, Romans had access to unprecedented levels of wealth and spent it on lavish gatherings. In addition to being wined and dined, guests enjoyed musical, theatrical, and even acrobatic performances.
A banquet traditionally took place in the triclinium (dining room), named after the three couches arranged in a U-shape around a central table. Seating was hierarchical, with guests reclining on couches based on their status. Inspired by the Greek symposium, or ritual drinking party, the Roman convivium differed with the inclusion of women as guests and a greater emphasis on food.
The ancient Roman diet consisted of meat, seafood, produce, grains, legumes, and olive oil, ingredients still found in modern Italian cuisine. In addition to these staple foods, the Romans enjoyed delicacies including peacock, calf’s brains, jellyfish, crane, ostrich, flamingo, pig’s uterus, snail, and dormouse.
from Rome, Italy
Mosaic with Fish, end of the 2nd–beginning of the 3rd century CE
multicolored marble
Pairs of trout, mullet, and umbrina, all of which are native to the Mediterranean Sea, decorate this mosaic. Small colored stones called tesserae enabled Roman artisans to create detailed, almost painterly designs. Mosaics featuring fish originated during the Hellenistic period of ancient Greece (3rd–2nd century BCE) and appeared in Roman triclinia (dining rooms) to evoke the abundance of food.
The National Roman Museum, 1030 2026.100
from Rome, Italy
Pan, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 4544 2026.140
from Rome, Italy
Saucepan, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 4546
2026.141
from Rome, Italy
Pan with Handle in the Shape of an Animal (possibly a panther), 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 65482 2026.146
Cookware and Dining
Roman food was typically prepared in ovens or over an open fire. Wealthier homes had bronze pots and pans for cooking, while those in more modest households used thick ceramic pots.
During Trajan’s reign, the upper and lower classes consumed different dishes from one another. The empire had reached its largest expanse, giving elite Romans access to foodstuffs and spices from far-off provinces within the imperial holdings. Banquet hosts served expensive and difficult-to-source cuisine to impress their guests. Urban-dwelling Romans of lesser means often lacked kitchens in their insulae (apartments). Instead, they bought ready-to-eat meals from thermopolia (street stalls), which were similar to the modern fast-food restaurant.
from Rome, Italy
Amphora with Lid,1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1266 2026.137a,b
from Pompeii, Italy
Skyphos (Two-Handled Wine Cup), 1st century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 111384 2026.41
Drinkware
Alongside furnishings, frescoes, and mosaics, the drinkware used during a Roman banquet revealed the host’s status and artistic tastes. The large amphora with a lid showcases both the skill of Roman glassmakers and the expenses that a host would lavish on their tableware to advertise their wealth and social status.
The skyphos with finely carved grapevines imitates traditional Greek wine vessels. Skyphoi were fairly deep cups made of ceramic, or more rarely, metal, with two small handles just below the rim. Carved from marble, the example displayed here was an ornamental luxury object not intended for use at the table. Everyday drinking cups were made of glass and handleless, like those seen nearby.
from Rome, Italy
Fulcrum of a Bed, 1st century BCE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 67555-1 2026.150
from Rome, Italy
Fulcrum of a Bed, 1st century BCE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 67555-2 2026.151
Fulcra
A fulcrum was a decorative but functional part of a Roman bed (see image). Often made of bronze or bone, they were attached to the wooden legs and headboard to provide stability. The pair seen here originally belonged to the same bed: The front fulcrum depicts a satyr and a donkey, while the rear fulcrum features a duck.
The fulcrum with a donkey is more elaborate and includes damascening. This decorative technique involves inlaying materials—usually silver, copper, and niello, a black enamel-like substance—into the surface to add depth and detail.
from Telesia, Italy
Statue of a Satyr, 1st century CE
marble
The smiling face of this satyr is turned toward the basket he is carrying. Filled with fruits, it alludes to the abundance of nature, where these fantastical creatures dwelled. Satyrs were the joyful followers of Bacchus (Greek: Dionysus), the god of wine and revelry. While a satyr is part man and part goat, many, like this one, are represented with primarily human characteristics, sometimes distinguished by pointed ears. In ancient Greek and Roman myth, satyrs were known for excessive drinking, symbolizing both indulgence and the need for moderation.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6325 2026.21
from the House of the Triclinium, Pompeii, Italy
Banquet Scene, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The fresco fragment displayed here illustrates the excess of banqueting culture. A guest, having consumed too much wine or rich food, stumbles forward as an enslaved attendant attempts to keep him upright. Once located in a Pompeiian triclinium (dining room), this painting likely served as a reminder to dinner guests not to overindulge.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 120029 2026.38
from Rome, Italy
Plate, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1273 2026.123
from Rome, Italy
Bowl in the Form of a Boat, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 73927 2026.124
from Rome, Italy
Plate, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1263 2026.135
from Rome, Italy
Cup, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 65368 2026.133
from Rome, Italy
Plate, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1098 2026.122
from Rome, Italy
Little Bottle, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 62855 2026.126
Tableware
Tableware was an important component of Roman domestic decoration. Although bronze cups were popular, glassware gradually took the place of ceramic and metal vessels, being faster to produce and less expensive. Shades of blue and green were the most common hues.
The cups, plates, bowls, pitchers, and bottle seen here showcase the variety of objects and materials used in a Roman banquet. Some tableware was specific to a certain type of food or drink, such as the small boat-shaped container that may have held sauces to serve with fish.
from Rome, Italy
Cup, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1264 2026.136
from Rome, Italy
Plate, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 29963 2026.144
from Rome, Italy
Bowl, 3rd–4th century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1274 2026.139
from Rome, Italy
Cup, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1258 2026.134
from Rome, Italy
Pitcher, 3rd–4th century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 62865 sost. da 1111 2026.145
from Rome, Italy
Pitcher, 1st–2nd century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 29956 2026.143
Tableware
Tableware was an important component of Roman domestic decoration. Although bronze cups were popular, glassware gradually took the place of ceramic and metal vessels, being faster to produce and less expensive. Shades of blue and green were the most common hues.
The cups, plates, bowls, pitchers, and bottle seen here showcase the variety of objects and materials used in a Roman banquet. Some tableware was specific to a certain type of food or drink, such as the small boat-shaped container that may have held sauces to serve with fish.
Gallery 255
from Herculaneum, Italy
Garden Scene, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 8763 2026.35
PRIVATE GARDENS AND PUBLIC BATHS
Life as a Roman was a balance between otium et negotium (leisure and business). After completing morning work, one might visit the public bathhouse for an afternoon of relaxation. The public baths were social spaces as much as they were for personal hygiene. Some of the wealthiest Romans had their own bathing complexes within the home, and nearly all upper-class residences had private gardens.
In the Trajanic era, the humble vegetable plots of the early republic were transformed into radically different gardens. They consisted of plants and flowers imported from the outer reaches of the empire as well as water features, sculptures, and architectural structures.
Key to the existence of elaborate horticultural spaces and public baths were aqueducts. Trajan, as part of his effort to improve urban conditions, built the Aqua Traiana (Trajan’s Aqueduct) to bring more fresh water into the city of Rome. The emperor also sponsored the construction of the Thermae Traiani (Baths of Trajan)—a monumental effort that surpassed earlier imperial public baths. Designed by Trajan’s favored architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, the Baths of Trajan had gardens, lecture halls, and libraries in addition to rooms for bathing.
from Pompeii, Italy
Chimera, 1st century CE
bronze
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 124857 2026.24
from Pompeii, Italy
Silenus on a Wineskin, 1st century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 120362 2026.46
from Rome, Italy
Fountain Element with a Cherub and Marine Animal, 1st century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 65845 2026.109
Garden Decorations
Gardens were a multisensory space of otium (leisure), to which fountains were key. The sound of running water served as a pleasant barrier against the chaotic noise of the city outside the confines of the home. Fountain and garden decorations took on the form of real animals or imagined creatures from mythology.
For example, one fountain element portrays Silenus, father of the satyrs and tutor of Bacchus (Greek: Dionysus), perched atop a wineskin. It originally functioned as a spout for a fountain, located in the impluvium, a basin used to collect rainwater at the center of an open-air atrium of the house. Another fountain spout depicts Cupid (Greek: Eros) riding a mythical sea monster. The chimera—a hybrid of a goat, a lion, and a serpent—was originally part of a larger composition decorating a garden wall.
from a Roman villa, Tusculum Hill, Ruffinella area, Rome, Italy
Mosaic with Victories, Masks, and Coffered Motifs, first half of the 1st century CE
marble and limestone
The National Roman Museum, 1238 2026.99
from Rome, Italy
Strigil, 1st century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 5176 2026.119
from Rome, Italy
Strigil, 1st century CE
bronze
The National Roman Museum, 5154 2026.120
Strigils
Strigils were important grooming tools, especially for Roman athletes and women. Often made of bronze with a curved, concave shape, they were used to scrape oil, dirt, and sweat from the skin following exercise or after bathing. To help with the cleaning, olive oil was often applied to the skin first.
from Monte Cagnolo, Italy
Two Greyhounds, 2nd century CE
marble
Vatican Museums, Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican City, 430 2026.14
from Rome, Italy
Fountain Element in the Form of a Rhyton, first half of the 1st century CE
marble
This fountain element resembles a rhyton, a drinking vessel with a wide opening, that turns into an animal’s head. Rhyta were used at Greek symposia—ritual drinking events—and later at Roman banquets. The water from a fountain would flow through the top of this rhyton and out between the legs of the fantastic creature, a hybrid of a lion, griffin, and horse.
The National Roman Museum, 124132 2026.101
from the House of the Scientists, VI 14.43, Pompeii, Italy
Hellenistic Statue of a Man, 1st century BCE
marble
This statue depicts a nude male with a garment draped over his left arm, balanced by a marble support shaped like stylized armor. Its idealized form mimics Classical and Hellenistic statuary imported from Greece on a large scale by Roman aristocrats. Greek art, especially bronze and marble sculpture, represented cultural sophistication and status and was displayed prominently in upper-class homes and gardens.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 126249 2026.20
from Pompeii, Italy
Landscape, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 9400 2026.34
Villa of Livia – Garden fresco;
Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome
from Pompeii, Italy
Amazon, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 9365 2026.27
from Pompeii, Italy
Couple in Flight, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 8830 2026.30
Gallery 256
Chris Cundy,
English, born 1976
A Soundscape of Aquae Sulis, 2026
multichannel sound composition
20 minutes, looped
This soundscape mixes recordings made both below and above the water at the Roman Baths, part of the UNESCO World Heritage site in Bath, England. Using a combination of hydrophones and ambient microphones, the work follows a subterranean journey from the source of the geothermal hot spring, dedicated in ancient Roman times to the goddess Sulis Minerva, who was based on the Celtic goddess Sulis and the Greek Athena. Complex sound tapestries interweave meteorological activity, contemporary infrastructure, and spectral frequencies from around the site. Together, these sounds disrupt the boundary between earth and water, past and present.
Enjoy a moment of otium, or leisure, with the sounds of ancient Roman baths.
The soundscape uses field recordings sourced from A Sound Map of the Roman Baths, an Archaeology of the Ear production created in partnership with the Roman Baths, the University of Gloucestershire, the Sound/Image Research Centre, and Resonance FM.
Gallery 254
WOMEN’S SPACES AND FACES
A Roman woman’s public influence depended on her social status. Although they lacked the same political and civic freedoms as men, female members of the imperial family were models for women across many social classes. For example, marble portraits of empresses, distributed throughout the empire, were copied by upper-class Roman women for their own likenesses. The influence of imperial women was so strong that archaeologists can date portraits based on their hairstyles.
Ancillae (enslaved women) played integral roles in how elite Roman women presented themselves. For example, an ornatrix—from the Latin meaning “to adorn,” “to dress,” or “to decorate”—was a stylist who assisted with daily dressing, hairstyling, jewelry selection, and the application of perfumed oils.
In addition to shaping fashion and physical appearance, women of the imperial court helped define how an “ideal” Roman woman should behave. Roman historian Cassius Dio (c.150–235 CE) praised Plotina for her respectable demeanor as empress, writing that the wife of Trajan “conducted herself during the entire reign in such manner as to incur no censure.”
from Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, Italy
Bust of a Woman with a Braided Hairstyle (possibly Sabina), early decades of the 2nd century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 121539 2026.88
from Rome, Italy
Bust of Sabina, early decades of 2nd century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 577 2026.132
These two busts may be portraits of Sabina, Trajan’s grandniece and empress of the Roman Empire through her marriage to Hadrian. Their resemblance to her, however, also embodies a trend among upper-class Roman women to model themselves after members of the imperial family. When these two works were made, the subjects may have instructed the sculptor to modify their facial features and hairstyle to match those of the empress. In Roman portraiture, the projection of a meticulously crafted identity, rather than a true-to-life representation, was the goal.
from Pompeii, Italy
Selene and Endymion, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
In Greek mythology, Selene, goddess of the moon, is in love with Endymion, a hunter. Because Selene admires his beauty and appearance when he sleeps, Zeus (Roman: Jupiter), father of the gods, gives him eternal youth and sleep. Although the goddess cannot live on Earth with a mortal, she visits him every night. In this fresco, a small cupid leads Selene to her lover, who clutches two spears.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 9245 2026.32
from Rome, Italy
Necklace, 1st century CE
glass paste
The National Roman Museum, 500251 2026.105
from a mausoleum in the territory of Rome, Italy
Necklace, 150–200 CE
gold
The National Roman Museum, 489490 2026.106
from a necropolis in the territory of Rome, Italy
Earrings, 150–200 CE
gold
The National Roman Museum, 489489 2026.107a,b
from a necropolis in the territory of Rome, Italy
Earrings, 150–200 CE
gold and emeralds
The National Roman Museum, 489488 2026.108a,b
from a necropolis in the territory of Rome, Italy
Necklace, 150–200 CE
gold
The National Roman Museum, 465098 2026.103
from a necropolis in the territory of Rome, Italy
Necklace, c.150–250 CE
glass paste and gold
The National Roman Museum, 445647 2026.102a,b
Jewelry
Jewelry was important across all levels of Roman society for both men and women. With the riches of Trajan’s empire coming into Rome, gold was a prominent luxury material—even relatively poor women could have owned thin gold rings. Gold necklaces, earrings, rings, bracelets, anklets, buckles, diadems, and hairnets were popular accessories. Gems, pearls, coral, shells, and glass-paste beads were also used in jewelry—a more affordable option for many Romans.
The presence of precious stones reflects the expansion of trade routes to the east and south during the early empire. For instance, the emeralds adorning a pair of gold earrings in this case likely came from Mons Smaragdus, or Emerald Mountain, an area in Egypt heavily mined by the Romans.
from Pompeii, Italy
Two Female Portraits, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 9091 2026.40
from Ostia, Italy
Niche with the Three Graces, second half of the 2nd century CE
fresco on plaster
Once part of a tomb, this curved niche panel depicts three nude women. Known collectively as the Gratiae in Roman mythology, the Three Graces are goddesses originating from Greek myth. Each of them personifies a specific attribute: Aglaea (splendor), Euphrosyne (joy), and Thalia (festivity). This representation of the Graces—three women entwined with one figure facing the other two—resembles earlier Hellenistic models.
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 10033 2026.79
from the territory of Rome, Italy
Perfume Jar, late 1st–3rd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1283 2026.131
from the territory of Rome, Italy
Little Bottle, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 8211 2026.129
from the territory of Rome, Italy
Little Bottle, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 8176 2026.128
from Rome, Italy
Bottle, 3rd–4th century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 1267 2026.138
from the territory of Rome, Italy
Little Bottle, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 8185 2026.127
from the territory of Rome, Italy
Little Bottle, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 8221 2026.130
from the territory of Rome, Italy
Unguent Jar, 1st–2nd century CE
glass
The National Roman Museum, 14991 2026.125
Cosmetic Vessels
Known as unguentaria or balsamaria, these small vessels may have once been an important part of a Roman woman’s vanity table. Each is made from blown glass, a technique developed in the Levant region that now encompasses Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, and Israel. This type of glassmaking allowed artisans to produce vessels quickly and cheaply. As a result, they were popular for their practicality and low cost and were used by Romans of all social classes. The bottles with tall, narrow necks better preserved the contents— typically perfumes or other refined liquids—although the shape of the vessel could vary.
from Pompeii, Italy
Judgment of Paris, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The goddesses Juno (Greek: Hera), Venus (Aphrodite), and Minerva (Athena), and the god Mercury (Hermes) look on as Paris, pondering over his shepherd’s crook, prepares to make a decision. Selected by the three goddesses to determine the fairest of them all, Paris ultimately picks Venus, goddess of love and beauty. As a reward, Venus promises him Helen— the wife of King Menelaus of Sparta—said to be the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris’s subsequent abduction of Helen leads to the outbreak of the legendary Trojan War.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 119691 2026.28
from site V 2.14, Pompeii, Italy
Departure of Chryseis, 45–79 CE
fresco on plaster
Scenes from Greek mythology depicting the epic Trojan War were popular in Roman frescoes. Shown here accompanied by two children is Chryseis. The daughter of a Trojan priest of Apollo, she boards a boat by gangplank. Taken by Agamemnon, leader of the Greeks, Chryseis is returned to the Trojan camp in exchange for Achilles’s lover Briseis. This fragment was excavated from what is believed to be a Pompeiian shop, which also had a fresco painting of Odysseus and Circe.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 119690 2026.29
from Rome, Italy
Head of a Mature Woman, 1st century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 4277 2026.95
from Rome, Italy
Bust of a Woman, 1st century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 4179 2026.91
from Rome, Italy
Bust of an Older Woman, 1st century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 124474 2026.90
Women’s Hairstyles
This group of portrait busts displays various hairstyles from the first two centuries of the Roman Empire. Upper-class women wore elaborate updos, sometimes incorporating wigs or hairpieces to add volume. Given the complexity of the hairstyles, a grooming session likely required a significant amount of time. Ornatrices (enslaved female attendants) painstakingly arranged elite women’s hair, often imitating contemporary styles worn by the imperial family.
For example, Bust of an Older Woman features tight, piled curls at the hairline, a style popular during the Flavian dynasty (69–96 CE). Artists skillfully recreated it in stone with manual drills, carving deep holes to form the ringlets. The pairing of an intricate hair design with a serene, or even serious, facial expression signified both the high status and the modesty of the subject depicted—an exemplar of an ideal Roman woman.
possibly from Libya
Bust of a Provincial Woman, 1st–2nd century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 4296 2026.93
from Rome, Italy
Bust of a Woman, 1st century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 311 2026.92
from Rome, Italy
Bust of a Woman Wearing a Necklace (torques), 1st century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 121214 2026.94
Women’s Hairstyles
This group of portrait busts displays various hairstyles from the first two centuries of the Roman Empire. Upper-class women wore elaborate updos, sometimes incorporating wigs or hairpieces to add volume. Given the complexity of the hairstyles, a grooming session likely required a significant amount of time. Ornatrices (enslaved female attendants) painstakingly arranged elite women’s hair, often imitating contemporary styles worn by the imperial family.
For example, Bust of an Older Woman features tight, piled curls at the hairline, a style popular during the Flavian dynasty (69–96 CE). Artists skillfully recreated it in stone with manual drills, carving deep holes to form the ringlets. The pairing of an intricate hair design with a serene, or even serious, facial expression signified both the high status and the modesty of the subject depicted—an exemplar of an ideal Roman woman.
Gallery 253B
RELIGION AND MYTH
Religion and myth coexisted at all levels of Roman society, both in the public domain and in domestic life. Polytheism, or the worship of many deities, was practiced as the official state religion. Like previous emperors, Trajan was honored as Pontifex Maximus, the highest priest and head of the imperial cult. His status as both emperor and priest confirmed his rule as divinely sanctioned.
Women often held sacred, public-facing roles in religious rituals, especially as high-ranking priestesses. Imperial women could even be depicted as deities, such as the statue of Sabina as Ceres, the goddess of agriculture and prosperity.
In cities across the Roman Empire, representations of the gods were symbols of security. The genius loci, a divine guardian figure, offered protection to a particular place, while boundary markers, called herms, provided a similar sense of safety to passers-by.
Although many other religions existed at this time, most were not recognized by the state or allowed to be practiced openly. However, the intermingling of faiths is evidenced by artworks like the small bronze statuettes from the multicultural and multiethnic city of Ostia. Additionally, ceremonial oil lamps, frescoes of Greco-Roman myths, and funerary objects demonstrate how Romans envisioned and celebrated their beliefs.
from Pompeii, Italy
Polyphemus, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
The one-eyed giant Polyphemus perches on a rocky outcrop while holding a lyre. His hand extends to receive a letter from a putto (small, winged boy) who rides on a dolphin. One of the Cyclopes in Homer’s Greek epic the Odyssey, Polyphemus can be identified by his shepherd’s staff. This tranquil coastal scene must be before the Cyclops encounters Odysseus, who tricks the giant, gets him drunk on undiluted wine, and blinds him.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 8984 2026.37
from the House of Achilles, Pompeii, Italy
Achilles on Skyros, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
At the center of this dramatic scene, Achilles—a hero of the epic Illiad by the Greek poet Homer—grabs a shield. Fated to die during the Trojan War, he is sent by his mother, the goddess Thetis, to the royal court on the island of Skyros to escape his destiny. Achilles dresses as a woman to hide among the king’s daughters. His identity is revealed when Odysseus presents weapons that Achilles cannot resist. Stories from the warrior’s adventurous life were popular subjects for frescoes, often decorating entire rooms.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 116085 2026.36
from Pompeii, Italy
Narcissus and Echo, 1st century CE
fresco on plaster
Narcissus, a youth famed for his beauty, reclines on a rock with drapery tantalizingly pulled around his nude body. Narcissus is so taken by his own appearance that he ignores the amorous calls of Echo, seen at left. When she becomes consumed by grief, the gods punish Narcissus, making him fall in love with his own reflection in a pool. Believing he can embrace his image, Narcissus falls into the water, leaving in his place a beautiful yellow flower. A myth from ancient Greece, his metamorphosis is a cautionary tale of vanity.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 9380 2026.33
from Tomb 26, Isola Sacra Necropolis, Portus, Italy
Arcosolium with Cherub and Ducks, beginning of the 3rd century CE
fresco on plaster
This aquatic scene features an amorino (small cherub) and ducks. An arcosolium is an arched recess in a Roman tomb, where the tops of the niche walls curve into a rounded ceiling. This panel is from a burial building in the Isola Sacra Necropolis, a cemetery used by the middle class, including merchants, business owners, and freed citizens who had been formerly enslaved.
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 10125 2026.80
from the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy
Sabina as Ceres, 137–138 CE
marble
This sculpture depicts Sabina, grandniece of Trajan, in the guise of the goddess Ceres. The women of ruling imperial families regularly held roles as priestesses of this deity, one of the oldest in the Roman pantheon. Ceres is associated with prosperity and fertility in nature, symbolized by the wheat and poppies in Sabina’s lowered hand. She wears a tunica (dress) and palla (mantle) wrapped and draped around her body and covering her head—a reference to Sabina’s deification after her death around 137 CE.
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 25 2026.81
from Rome, Italy
Sistrum, 1st century CE
bronze
A cat nurses two kittens on the top of this sistrum. A type of musical instrument originating from Egypt, it was used for religious celebrations of Isis, goddess of motherhood, magic, healing, and protection. This Roman example consists of metal bars inserted into a horseshoe-shaped frame attached to a base and handle. When shaken, it produces a high-pitched jingle that was believed to ward off evil.
The National Roman Museum, 518843 2026.104
from Ostia, Italy
Oil Lamp with Fortuna and Signature, beginning of the 3rd century CE
terracotta
The Roman goddess Fortuna, personification of luck, decorates this terracotta oil lamp. Lamps were important for lighting often- dark interior spaces, like the home, and in the practice of rituals. The head of the workshop in Ostia that produced this example signed it, using typical Latin abbreviations: Anni[us] Ser[apiodorus]. His name suggests he was a follower of Serapis, the Egyptian god of grain and trade, who gained popularity during the 1st century.
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 2030 2026.73
from Pompeii, Italy
Oscillum with Pan as a Satyr (Obverse) and Dionysus (Reverse), 1st century CE
marble
Carved in relief on both sides, this marble oscillum was hung between columns and oscillated, hence its name. Oscilla originated from countryside festivals, where small votive gifts were suspended from tree branches, typically in honor of Dionysus (Roman: Bacchus). On one side of the oscillum, Dionysus approaches an altar. On the other, Pan, depicted as a satyr, plays the flute and prances on his goat legs. Dionysus and Pan were closely linked—both gods represented revelry and untamed nature.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6646 2026.19
from the Sacellum of Silvanus, Ostia, Italy
Mercury, end of the 2nd century–beginning of the 3rd century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3540 2026.57
from the Sacellum of Silvanus, Ostia, Italy
Scorpion, 1st century BCE–4th century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3568 2026.51
Bronze Statuettes
These bronze statuettes from Ostia illustrate the importance of images of the gods for private worship. Every ancient Roman household included a Lar, an ancestral deity who protected the home. Such objects influenced a family’s activities and were often placed at the table during meals.
Representations of animals are tied to various cults. Other bronzes depict gods significant to the bustling commercial center of Ostia: Mercury (Greek: Hermes) is the god of merchants; Hercules (Heracles), renowned for his journeys, is linked to foreign trade; and Jupiter Serapis is a merging of the Roman father of the gods, Jupiter (Zeus) and Serapis, the Greco-Egyptian god associated with abundance and grain.
from the House of the Millstones (I.III.1), Ostia, Italy
Young Hercules, end of the 2nd century–beginning of the 3rd century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3538 2026.58
from the House of the Millstones (I.III.1.), Ostia, Italy
Lar, first half of the 1st century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3535 2026.49
from the House of the Millstones (I.III.1.), Ostia, Italy
Jupiter Serapis, end of the 2nd century–beginning of the 3rd century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3551 2026.56
from the Pistrine Building, Ostia, Italy
Serpent, 1st century BCE–4th century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3567 2026.52
from the Sacellum of Silvanus, Ostia, Italy
Mask of a Gorgon, 1st century BCE–4th century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 4166 2026.53
Bronze Statuettes
These bronze statuettes from Ostia illustrate the importance of images of the gods for private worship. Every ancient Roman household included a Lar, an ancestral deity who protected the home. Such objects influenced a family’s activities and were often placed at the table during meals.
Representations of animals are tied to various cults. Other bronzes depict gods significant to the bustling commercial center of Ostia: Mercury (Greek: Hermes) is the god of merchants; Hercules (Heracles), renowned for his journeys, is linked to foreign trade; and Jupiter Serapisis is a merging of the Roman father of the gods. Jupiter (Zeus), and Serapis, the Greco Egyptian god associated with abundance and grain.
from Rome, Italy
Cinerary Urn, mid-1st–2nd century CE
marble
This cinerary urn was meant to hold the cremated remains of an upper- or middle-class individual in a family tomb. It is decorated with Roman religious motifs and elements from actual funerary rituals. The lush garland of fruits includes wheat, pomegranates, acorns, olive branches, laurels, and flowers. These symbols of abundance ensured one’s well-being in the afterlife. The name of the deceased would have been painted in the now-empty plaque.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 47:1922a,b
from the Villa Doria Pamphili Estate, Rome, Italy
Frescoed Panel from the Villa Pamphili Columbarium, 1st century CE
painted plasterwork
Decorated with pastoral imagery, this fresco comes from a columbarium, a communal funerary structure with niches for urns. The Villa Pamphili Columbarium was owned by a group of liberti (freedmen), who bought and resold more than 500 individual burial niches, mostly to other freed slaves. The structure’s frescoes were painted by two or three different artists and feature pleasant scenes of birds, animals, and landscapes rather than traditional funerary imagery.
The National Roman Museum, 517351/31, panel C3 2026.152
from Pompeii, Italy
Herm with the Nymph Io, 1st–2nd century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 119584 2026.45
from Pompeii, Italy
Herm with Dionysus, 1st–2nd century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 120427 2026.43
Gallery 251A
CIVIC LIFE AND ENTERTAINMENT
Panem et circenses (bread and circuses) is a phrase referencing a political strategy used by ancient Roman emperors. Leaders like Trajan recognized that keeping their subjects well-fed and entertained could secure their loyalty and cultivate a favorable view of the empire and its ruler.
The objects in this gallery demonstrate Trajan’s commitment to the “circuses,” or entertainment for the people. Public spectacles included theater productions complete with masks of mythical characters and a wide variety of ludi (games). Gladiatorial combats in amphitheaters, like the famous Colosseum, created heroes who could reach legendary status. Charioteers raced at thrilling speeds around the Circus Maximus, the largest stadium in antiquity. Trajan’s structural renovations around 103 CE beautified and expanded the venue to seat up to 300,000 spectators and improved its overall efficiency.
Games and triumphal parades were often held in honor of Rome and its victories. Most notable was Trajan’s celebration of his conquest of the Dacians, with games lasting 120 days in c.107 CE. Longer and more extravagant than those of any emperor before or after him, these events reinforced his image as a successful and generous leader.
from the Roman Empire
Funerary Relief with the Circus Maximus, beginning of the 2nd century CE/
marble
A quadriga (four-horse chariot) runs around a central barrier called the spina inside the Circus Maximus. Like modern-day race car drivers, the quadriga charioteers became famous for these dangerous, high- speed competitions involving multiple laps. This sculpture was originally part of a funerary monument. At left, the deceased, who may have worked for one of the racing teams, is depicted with his wife.
Vatican Museums, Gregoriano Profano Museum, Vatican City, 9556 2026.11
from Pompeii, Italy
Relief with Theatrical Masks, 1st century CE
terracotta
The theatrical masks on this relief portray maenads, followers of the god Bacchus (Greek: Dionysus) who were popular characters in comedic Greco-Roman plays. On the left is a female maenad in front of a tympanum, a type of tambourine. On the right is a male satyr with a pan flute. Behind them are crisscrossing staffs associated with Bacchus, including the thyrsus, which was topped with a pinecone or fennel.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 21423 2026.23
from Albergo e Caupona VII 11.6, Pompeii, Italy
Helmet of a Murmillo with Muses, Musicians, and Masks, 1st century CE
bronze
The broad protective visor identifies this helmet as one worn by a murmillo, a heavily armed gladiator who carried a gladius (sword) and a scutum (large rectangular shield). Richly decorated, this particular helmet was probably worn in parades rather than combat. To celebrate Rome, the helmet features a pedum, a symbolic stick that alludes to the city’s pastoral and mythical origins. It also includes motifs tied to other popular forms of entertainment: Muses, masks, and a young musician playing a type of flute called a syrinx.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 5671 2026.17
from Pompeii, Italy
Oscillum with Masks, 1st century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6665 2026.22
from Pompeii, Italy
Oscillum in the Form of a Pelta Shield, 1st century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 110662 2026.42
from Pompeii, Italy
Pinax with Daedalus (Obverse) and Masks (Reverse), 1st century CE
marble
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 120325 2026.48
Carved in low relief on both sides, oscilla are decorative plaques meant to be suspended. They often take one of three forms: tondo (disk), pelta (half-moon shield), or pinax (framed rectangle). The reliefs typically represent theatrical themes or images of Bacchus (Greek: Dionysus), god of theater, and his followers.
Pinakes were used as backdrops in ancient Greek theaters because they could be easily changed to set different scenes. The pinax here depicts two masks in profile on one side and the Athenian craftsman Daedalus on the other. In Greek mythology, Daedalus is known for crafting wings made of wax and feathers (seen here) so that he and his son, Icarus, could escape the island of Crete.
from Minturno, Italy
Statue of Caligula, 1st century CE
marble
This sculpture’s small mouth with a receding lower lip and overall youthfulness are common in portraits of the Julio-Claudian emperor Caligula (reigned 37–41 CE). A work of military propaganda, his cuirass (breastplate) features a dynamic, symbolic scene of a horseman under attack from a griffin, a mythological creature. The statue likely adorned the grand Roman theater in the ancient city of Minturnae (present-day Minturno). In Roman society, theatrical performances, sporting events, and shows of military strength were intertwined— a lesson Trajan learned from his predecessors.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6046 2026.153
from Pompeii, Italy
Cupid with a Mask of Pan, 1st century CE
marble
Represented as a young boy, the god Cupid (Greek: Eros) rests on a tree stump while playing with a theatrical mask on his knee. The mask represents Pan, the Greek deity of the wilderness. Because he was half goat and half man, Pan was typically portrayed with small horns and a shaggy beard. Associated with fertility and sexuality, Pan is also closely tied to satyrs, popular characters in Greco-Roman comedies.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 114895 2026.47
Gallery 251B
OSTIA AND ROME’S PORT ECONOMY
The success of ancient Rome was largely due to its access to key waterways, particularly the Mediterranean Sea and the Tiber River that runs through the city’s center. Between 106 and 113 CE, Trajan enlarged the port city of Ostia—which had long served as Rome’s vast, commercial hub on the river—to include Portus, an artificial, hexagonal port. The construction increased trade and productivity, strengthening the empire’s economy by keeping goods flowing steadily into Rome.
Several artworks in this gallery embody the importance of Rome’s connection to the sea. Harbor scenes evoke the bustling port cities. An oil lamp, for example, shows the dense groupings of buildings that housed businesses and the people who depended on them for income. Decorative works, ranging from wall frescoes to column elements, reveal how artists were inspired by Rome’s ships and marine life, including fish and dolphins.
This gallery also illustrates the complex systems of transporting goods. Containers that moved commodities by ship as well as imported table settings emphasize the wide reach of the empire during Trajan’s reign. Other objects convey the hard labor necessary to sustain the wealth of the Roman Empire—work typically performed by people who were enslaved or from lower classes.
from Ostia, Italy
Oil Lamp with Depiction of a Port, 2nd–3rd century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 2012 2026.72
from Rome, Italy
Oil Lamp with Cupids on a Dolphin, 1st century CE
terracotta
The National Roman Museum, 62088 2026.115
from Rome, Italy
Relief of a Port Scene, end of the 2nd century–beginning of the 3rd century CE
marble
At left, a ship sails toward the Portus lighthouse. The hexagonal harbor of Portus was one of Trajan’s major building projects, constructed inland from Ostia to provide shelter from unfavorable weather and protection for ships. To the right, a young man dressed in a mantle stands on a pedestal. His left arm grasps a rudder, while a patera (plate for rituals) extends from his right to feed a bull. Additionally, he wears a small conical hat, perhaps a crown of the walls of Portus, indicating he is the divine representation of Trajan’s port city.
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 49132 2026.78
from Pietra Papa, Rome, Italy
Seascape with a Boat and Marine Animals, 123–150 CE
painted plasterwork
The National Roman Museum, 121460A da pietra papa 2026.149
from the Baths of the Silver Sages, Ostia, Italy
Weight with Damascened Inscription in Silver, 103–111 CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3591 2026.71
from the Necropolis of Porto all’Isola Sacra, Ostia, Italy
Relief Depicting the Milling of Grain, beginning of the 3rd century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 14263 2026.74
from the Baths of Diocletian, Rome, Italy
Lamp Support with a Saccarius (Worker Carrying a Sack), 2nd–3rd century CE
terracotta
The National Roman Museum, 51154 2026.112
from Ostia, Italy
Statuette of a Saccarius (Worker Carrying a Sack), 1st–2nd century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3263 2026.59
from Rome, Italy
Relief of a Port Scene, 250–300 CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 56425 2026.113
Feeding Rome
Grain, particularly wheat, was a staple of the ancient Roman diet. The government oversaw its supply and distributed rations. Throughout the empire, grain was most efficiently and safely transported by water, highlighting the importance of Rome’s port cities in feeding its people.
These objects attest to the logistics and labor—often performed by enslaved people— required to put bread on the Roman table. A statuette and lamp support feature saccari, workers hauling heavy sacks, perhaps filled with grain. A port scene relief shows a laborer bringing cargo to the gangway of a ship. Another relief depicts a mill, where a donkey turns an hourglass-shaped machine that grinds grain into flour for baking. A bronze weight of five Roman librae (approximately 3.6 US pounds) includes an inscription naming Trajan and the prefect, or food inspector, who guaranteed it.
from Ostia, Italy
Bowl (Type Hayes 74A), 75–120 CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 16634 2026.68
from Ostia, Italy
Plate (Type Dragendorff 18), 50–100 CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 4837 2026.67
from Ostia, Italy
Plate (Type Conspectus 4,4), 50–100 CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 14257 2026.66
from Monte Giulio, Italy
Cup with Scene of Amazons in Combat, 1st century BCE–4th century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 25.M428-1.1 2026.65
from Ostia, Italy
Sealed Jar, 1st century BCE–4th century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 16476 2026.69
from Ostia, Italy
Cup with Relief of Figures and Botanical Design, 2nd–3rd century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 5667 2026.70
Terracotta Tableware
These terracotta dishes from Ostia represent the type of tableware commonly used throughout the Roman Empire in households across all socioeconomic levels. Called terra sigillata (stamped clay), they were durable and could be quickly mass-produced. Their reddish colors are created with a slip—a mixture of clay and water—applied before firing. Some include vegetal or figural designs or bear the maker’s stamp, visible in some of the examples seen here. The objects were imported to Ostia from multiple production centers, ranging from Italy to Gaul (modern-day France) and Hispania (modern-day Spain and Portugal) to Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).
from Ostia, Italy
Stamp Mold of Wild Boar with Modern Impression, end of the 2nd–early 3rd century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3764 2026.75.01,.02
from the House of the Dolia, Ostia, Italy
Stamp Mold Depicting the Seven Against Thebes with Modern Impression, end of the 2nd–early 3rd century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 3771 2026.76.01,.02
from Ostia, Italy
Lettered Plaquettes, 1st century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 4172 2026.60.01
from Ostia, Italy
Lettered Plaquettes, 1st century CE
bronze
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 4173 2026.60.02
Stamps
Signacula (stamps), like those displayed here, were molds for creating inscriptions and decorations. They had various uses, like marking textiles and animal hides and imprinting reliefs on ceramics. In one example, the artist drew on Greek mythology, representing The Seven Against Thebes, a famous and frequently staged play written by Aeschylus in 467 BCE. Another stamp depicts a form of entertainment involving fights between animals. In the lively trading hub of Ostia, signacula also functioned similarly to modern logos and labels— ancient Roman bakers even branded their bread.
from the Necropolis of the Via Laurentina, Ostia, Italy
Tomb Inscription of Titus Flavius Stefanus, end of the 1st–early 2nd century CE
marble
This inscription comes from the tomb of a caravan organizer, and reads: Dis manibus T[iti] Flavi, Aug[usti] lib[erti], Stephani praeposito camellorum—“To the spirits of the dead, for Titus Flavius Stephanus, imperial freedman, overseer of camels.” Stephanus was a freed slave who managed caravans of camels bought in Africa and transported to Rome by sea. Freedmen, who were granted Roman citizenship, often took the name of the family who released them from servitude. Stephanus’s family name indicates he was emancipated by one of the Flavian emperors.
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 7029 2026.77
from Lake Nemi, Italy
Oarlock with a Lion, 37–41 CE
bronze
This magnificent lion symbolizes the power of Rome’s maritime fleet. Encircled by a thick, flowing mane, its jaws grasp a ring that held a boat’s oar in place when rowed. The object belonged to one of two sunken ships recovered in 1929 from Lake Nemi, located southeast of Rome. Lavishly decorated, they were parade vessels built as palaces on water during Caligula’s reign (37–41 CE). Although the ships were lost before Trajan’s rule, objects like this one reflect boat elements still produced in his time.
The National Roman Museum, 124754 2026.98
from the Baths of Diocletian, Michelangelo Cloister, Rome, Italy
Column Base in the Form of a Ship, 2nd century CE
marble
The National Roman Museum, 677 2026.114
from Ostia, Italy
Transport Amphora (Type Kapitan II), 3rd–4th century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 15590 2026.61
from Ostia, Italy
Transport Amphora (Type Africana II D), end of the 3rd century–beginning of the 5th century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 15508 2026.63
from Ostia, Italy
Transport Amphora (Type Spatheion Keay XXVI), 4th–7th century CE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 16088 2026.62
from Ostia, Italy
Transport Amphora (Type Dressel 1B), 1st century BCE
terracotta
Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica, Rome, 16125 2026.64
Amphorae
Amphorae, or two-handled containers, were used to transport oil, wine, and specific foods throughout the Roman Empire. The variations in their form reflect the contents they once held as well as their origins—all of the examples displayed here were found at the port of Ostia but produced elsewhere. While most of these carried wine, the African-type vessel (Type Africana II D), transported oil, preserves, or salted-fish products.
Gallery 250
A SCENE FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN
This full-scale reproduction of a scene from Trajan’s Column shows the Roman army on the banks of a river, presumably the Danube, in Dacia (present-day Romania). Soldiers load goods onto ships on the left and row a warship on the right. Emperor Trajan, depicted slightly larger than the other figures, stands to the right, wearing traveling clothes and speaking with soldiers. In the background is an amphitheater outside the walls of a city, along with a temple and triumphal arches.
Ideas about how Trajan’s Column originally looked have been shaped by ongoing research and new technologies. Scholars first believed it was unadorned in white marble, an appearance often associated with ancient sculpture. Later studies argued that its surface was brightly colored. More-recent scientific evidence suggests the column was painted to look like bronze and mimic the statue of Trajan that once stood on top.
Watch the video in this gallery to learn how Trajan’s Column might have been built and colored.
Building an Ancient, Mysterious Monument, 2015; National Geographic.
Column reproduction by Printerior, with image resources courtesy of Flyover Zone, Inc.
Visitors are invited to touch this reproduction.
Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Italian, 1766–1839; The Forum of Trajan, Rome, late 18th-mid 19th century; drawing in pen and ink and gray wash; 3 1/16 x 4 3/16 inches; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Alexander B.V. Johnson and Roberta J.M. Olson 1996.582.6.1
Gallery 249
TRAJAN’S IMPERIAL LEGACY
Under Trajan’s military command, the Roman Empire reached its largest extent following his victory in the two Dacian Wars (101–102 CE and 105–106 CE). This win came at a significant cost on both sides. The empire’s expansion meant that entire populations were subjugated to Roman rule, represented in this gallery by the colossal head of a foreign man.
Instead of spending lavishly for his own personal enjoyment, Trajan invested the profits from the wars into public spaces. With the help of his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan spared no expense to construct new monuments and improve existing infrastructure. In 112 CE, Trajan inaugurated his imperial forum, an open- air space of oversized dimensions with a mixture of civic buildings and temples. Crowned by his monumental column, the forum was paved in costly, imported marble and richly decorated. It included a bronze equestrian statue of the emperor, sculptures of the conquered Dacians, and reliefs of victories and religious rituals.
Today, Trajan’s Forum and other impressive projects can be visited in the city of Rome and beyond. A living testament to an ambitious ruler, these archaeological remains not only embody his legacy but also offer a glimpse into the Roman Empire at the turn of the 2nd century CE.
from Rome, Italy
Trajan, beginning of the 2nd century CE
basalt
The National Roman Museum, 61160 2026.96
from Rome, Italy
Campana Relief with Winged Victory Sacrificing a Bull, end of the 1st century BCE– beginning of 1st century CE
terracotta
The National Roman Museum, 4362 2026.117
from Rome, Italy
Campana Relief with a Cupid and a Griffin, end of the 1st century BCE–beginning of 1st century CE
terracotta
The National Roman Museum, 121488 2026.121
from Rome, Italy
Campana Relief with Winged Victory in Flight with a Trophy, end of the 1st century BCE– beginning of 1st century CE
terracotta
The National Roman Museum, 4455 2026.118
Campana Reliefs
Architectural decorations like these terracotta slabs were produced in large quantities. They feature mythological scenes similar to motifs found throughout Trajan’s Forum. For example, winged personifications of Victory appearing in two of the panels can also be seen on Trajan’s Column. Running in a continuous band called a frieze, these mold-made reliefs were once brightly painted and adorned the tops of walls just below the roof. Today, they are known as the Campana Reliefs, named for Giampietro Campana, a 19th-century Italian art collector who owned and published them in 1842.
from Rome, Italy
Relief with Cupids Sacrificing Bulls, beginning of the 2nd century CE
marble
This finely carved relief shows two cupids sacrificing the mighty bulls below them. A symbolic depiction of a powerful ritual, the work represents strength conquered by good. The panel originally decorated the exterior walls of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Julius Caesar. Trajan renovated the temple while constructing his own Forum. Venus Genetrix was the goddess of love in her role as the mother of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and through it, the Roman Empire itself.
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, 6718 2026.18
from Rome, Italy
Aureus with Head of Marcus Aurelius (Obverse) and Winged Victory (Reverse), 168 CE
gold
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 259:1991
from Rome, Italy
Aureus with Trajan (Obverse) and Facade of an Octastyle Temple (Reverse), 112/113 CE
gold
The National Roman Museum, 87277 (gnecchi) 2026.82
from Rome, Italy
Dupondius of Trajan (Obverse) and Port of Trajan (Reverse), 112–114 CE
orichalcum
The National Roman Museum, 92329 2026.85
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Head of Hadrian (Obverse) and Roma/Virtus (Reverse), 125–134 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 281:1991
from Rome, Italy
Denarius with Bust of Hadrian (Obverse) and Concordia (Reverse), 117–138 CE
silver
Saint Louis Art Museum, Gift of Mr. Cornelius F. P. Stueck 282:1991
Coins
Trajan was the first emperor to mint coins commemorating Rome’s major monuments. Circulated throughout the empire, the coinage promoted his imperial power and specific achievements. One of the coins displayed here features the artificial harbor of Portus, Trajan’s most important civil engineering project.
Coins issued by Trajan and other Roman emperors also featured gods, their temples, or personifications of virtues. For example, an octastyle (eight-sided) temple dedicated to Honos, god of honor, appears on the back of a coin of Trajan. Representing a positive value on the reverse of the ruler’s portrait directly linked the two.
from Rome, Italy
Relief from the Tomb of the Haterii, 100–110 CE
marble
Five buildings constructed by Haterius, a public contractor in Rome during Trajan’s reign, stretch across this tomb relief. From left to right are the Arch of the Temple of Isis in the Campus Martius; the Colosseum; an arch with four facades, possibly a triumphal gate; an arch in sacra via summa (from the highest point) in the Roman Forum, perhaps the Arch of Titus; and finally, a grand, six-column temple dedicated to Jupiter. On the back of the relief is an architectural element from the tomb itself.
Vatican Museums, Gregoriano Profano Museum, Vatican City, 9997 2026.10
from Rome, Italy
Corinthian Capital, 2nd century CE
marble
Delicate acanthus leaves, spiral volutes, and a central flower adorn the top of this column capital. The design follows the Corinthian order, or architectural style. A capital was both functional and beautiful, acting as a transitional element from the vertical column to the horizontal span of a roof above. Originally invented by the ancient Greeks, Corinthian columns were the tallest and most slender of the three orders (including Doric and Ionic). When adapted by the Romans, this style became predominant across the empire.
Saint Louis Art Museum, Museum Purchase 45:1921
from Via Salaria, Rome, Italy
Statue of a Man in Military Dress,100–150 CE
marble
This statue depicts an imposing military figure wearing a cuirass (breastplate). On it is the face of a Gorgon, a female monster in Greco-Roman mythology, who appears above two winged griffins. The eagle-lion hybrids flank the sides of a candelabrum. Decorating the bottom edge is an acanthus border, below which are pteryges (hanging strips). The closure for the cuirass, located along the right side, preserves traces of paint. The sculpture’s highly realistic portrait with mature features recalls the statues of Trajan and Caligula in this exhibition, demonstrating how Roman men emulated the emperors and their military might.
The National Roman Museum, 108241 2026.97a,b
from Rome, Italy
Colossal Head of a Barbarian, 117–138 CE
marble
This man’s rough beard and tall pileus (leather hat) identify him as a barbarian, the ancient term used to describe certain non-Roman peoples. He resembles the populations who lived on the border of Dacia (present-day Romania) and were illustrated on Trajan’s column. The sculpture’s mature face, slightly sunken eyes, and incised pupils suggest it was made under the emperor Hadrian (reigned 117–138 CE). To carry on his adoptive father’s legacy, Hadrian emphasized subjects and narratives that celebrated Trajan’s military accomplishments.
Vatican Museums, Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican City, 651 2026.13
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