Nubia: Treasures of Ancient Africa

April 18–August 22, 2021

Main Exhibition Galleries, East Building

 

Nubia

Treasures of Ancient Africa

For nearly 3,000 years, a series of kingdoms flourished in the Sudanese Nile valley — a region known in antiquity as Kush and by modern scholars as Nubia. Ancient Nubian trade networks reached across the Mediterranean to Greece and Rome and far into central Africa. In the 8th century BC, Nubian kings conquered neighboring Egypt and, for nearly a century, controlled one of the largest empires in antiquity. The Nubians built major cities, temples, palaces, and more pyramids than the Egyptians. Their artists and craftspeople created magnificent jewelry, pottery, metalwork, furniture, and sculpture. Yet for many people today, this powerful history remains little known.

Nubia: Treasures of Ancient Africa explores ancient Nubia’s history chronologically through works drawn entirely from the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston’s Nubian collection, the largest and most important outside Sudan. At the same time, it seeks to confront some of the ways in which that history has been obscured and misinterpreted over the last century.

The exhibition presents more than 300 works of art, made over thousands of years of Nubian history. In these galleries, you will find masterpieces that highlight the skill, artistry, and innovation of Nubian makers and reflect the wealth and power of their kings and queens. You will also learn how ancient Nubia’s history has been written and taught during the last century and what it symbolizes to many today. Recent discoveries and balanced perspectives now reshape the ways this civilization’s past is understood.

Unless otherwise noted, all works in this exhibition are on loan from the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

The exhibition contains imagery that could be disturbing to some viewers.

Director introduction begins here. Audio guide available at slam.org/audio.

#NubianTreasures #STLArtMuseum

 

filmed by Bryan Whitney, Bernard-Noel Chagny, and Frank Stremke

Ancient Nubia Archeological Sites Drone Footage Montage
duration: 2 minutes, 10 seconds, looped

Courtesy of Museum of Fine Arts Boston,©Bryan Whitney/NCAM Jebel Barkal Archaeological Mission, Sudan. T. Kendall and Al-Hassan A. Mohamed (Co-Directors), Mission archeologique de l’Universite de Geneve a Kerma, and Qatari Mission for the Pyramids of Sudan & German Archaeological Institute

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Statuette of Taharqa, 690–664 BC
bronze

This statue shows King Taharqa in the distinctive regalia of Nubian rulers. He wears a cap-like headdress adorned with a ribbon and a pair of uraeus cobras that identify him as the sovereign of both Nubia and Egypt. His necklace consists of a thick chain bearing a ram’s head pendant in the center and smaller rams’ heads at each end, while his earrings take the form of identical rams. The ram symbolizes the supreme deity Amen, from whom Nubian kings claimed descent. In his hand, Taharqa holds a figurine of the goddess Maat, the embodiment of justice and world order. Under King Taharqa, Nubia’s empire reached its greatest extent, stretching from present-day Khartoum to the Middle East.

21.3096

 

Nubia And Its History

Historically, Nubia’s story has been told in large part by others—beginning with nearby rivals, the ancient Egyptians, who used propaganda to cast Nubia in a negative light. In the early 20th century, scholars and archaeologists often failed to acknowledge the independence and sophistication of ancient cultures south of Egypt. Many scholars’ work reflected racial prejudice inherent in their worldviews; this influenced the misunderstanding of Nubia for decades.

Between 1910 and 1932, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA) and Harvard University performed the first scientific excavations of Nubian sites. The partners undertook their work at the invitation of the Egyptian and Sudanese governments—then under British colonial administration. In exchange for financing and performing the excavations, the MFA received a portion of the discoveries, a standard practice at the time. Those objects form the core of the MFA’s Nubian collection.

While the MFA’s collection remains an essential resource for scholars and the international teams that continue to excavate Nubian sites, the MFA acknowledges that it embodies a history of colonialism. To steward a collection is a privilege and obligation. Nubia: Treasures of Ancient Africa reflects the latest scholarship in the field and represents one step in a larger commitment that both the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the Saint Louis Art Museum share to preserve, document, and exhibit these masterpieces with greater transparency.

KERMA: 2650–1550 BC

Already an established and fortified city by 2400 BC, Kerma grew to become the capital of a vast Nubian kingdom by about 1700 BC. Located at the Nile’s Third Cataract in northern Sudan, its trade network reached from the Nile valley into central Africa and the Red Sea coast. Within the city, palaces, offices, workshops, and homes clustered around a massive mud-brick temple. Outside the city’s walls lay suburbs, ports, and smaller settlements. A cemetery to the east of the city housed tombs and smaller, royal mortuary temples.

Archaeologists from the MFA excavated in the cemetery between 1913 and 1916, revealing funerary objects unlike anything they had seen before. Kerma’s rulers were buried in huge earthen mounds along with the remains of animals and humans sacrificed to accompany the rulers to the afterlife. Smaller, non-royal burial mounds were clustered around the royal tombs. The dead lay on leather mats or wooden beds decorated with precious materials like gold and ivory. Burial offerings included sculpture, food, beverages, weapons, jewelry, mirrors, combs, ostrich feather fans, beaded leather clothing, caps inlaid with mica, and exquisitely made pottery, the finest found anywhere in the Nile valley.

Famed for its archers, the army of Kerma eventually threatened Egypt to
the north. In the mid-16th century BC, war with Egypt ultimately led to the destruction of Kerma. Having joined forces with the Hyksos, a Near Eastern coalition that invaded Egypt from the north, Kerma attacked from the south. Egypt’s 18th Dynasty successfully retaliated, seizing Kerma’s territory and burning the capital city.

 

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

Pair of Bed Legs, 1700–1550 BC
wood

20.1390a–b

 

Foot Decoration from a Funerary Bed, 1700–1550 BC
gold

The legs of Kerma funerary beds were often carved to represent the legs of cattle, usually with close attention to anatomical detail. On the beds of royalty, the legs and feet were sometimes coated with a sheet of gold, as in this example.

13.3987

 

Headrest, 1700–1550 BC
wood

The people of Kerma buried their dead lying curled up on their sides, with their heads on wooden headrests. This example, with an octagonal stem, is typical. Headrests are still used in regions of Africa today.

20.1383

 

Funerary Beds

Joseph Gerte American, 1886–1967

Classic Kerma Period

Bed with Inlays, 1700–1550 BC
reproduction of an original from Kerma rosewood, pine, plaster, and rawhide

During the Classic Kerma Period, elite members of society buried their dead on elaborately decorated wooden beds. This replica shows the style of bed popular at the height of the Kerma civilization, with feet in the shape of cow hooves and a footboard decorated with ivory inlays. The footboard bears images of both real and mythical creatures. The upper row features eight ibexes, and the bottom row depicts five hyenas. In the middle are eight images of the hippopotamus goddess Taweret, who holds a knife to ward off evil.

Director’s Contingent Fund, 1940 40.469

 

Inlays from Funerary Beds

Footboard inlays from Kerman funerary beds frequently take the form of animals. Many inlays depict creatures recognizable from the grasslands of Africa, while some are imaginary, like the winged giraffe. The hippopotamus goddess Taweret, shown standing and brandishing a large knife, was a protective deity adopted from Egypt. A footboard typically featured three horizontal rows of identical beasts, as in the nearby reconstruction.

 

clockwise from top:

Excavated at Kerma, Classic Kerma Period

Inlay of a Falcon, 1700–1550 BC
ivory

13.4205

 

Inlay of an Ibex, 1700–1550 BC
ivory

13.4219f

 

Inlay of a Hyena, 1700–1550 BC
ivory
13.4221e

 

Inlay of Taweret, 1700–1550 BC
ivory
13.4220f

 

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

Wall Inlay of a Lion, 1700–1550 BC
faience

This lion is one of a pair that anked the entrance to a temple. The lions were probably associated with royal power. At Kerma, they also appeared in figurines, amulets, clothing appliqués, and furniture inlays. The lion god Apedemak was worshipped centuries later in Meroitic (323 BC–AD 364) times, but whether these much earlier lions represent him remains a mystery.

20.1224

 

Excavated at Kerm
Classic Kerma Period

Head of a Prisoner, 1700–1550 BC
faience

The decoration on one of Kerma’s later temples celebrated Kerma’s military prowess with images of defeated enemies, such as this example. This head represents one of these prisoners depicted on a wall tile. The striations around the neck may indicate the rope with which he was bound.

20.1305a

 

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

Ceiling Block with Rosette Pattern, 1700–1550 BC
sandstone and faience

This inlaid block once formed part of a temple’s ceiling. To create the pattern, rosettes were carved into the limestone blocks and the cavities were then filled with inlays made from pieces of recycled Egyptian faience, a type of glazed ceramic. Remnants of the original decoration in black can still be seen on some of them. No attempt was made to match the patterns, suggesting that the blue color was the important feature to the artist.

13.4360.1

 

TEMPLES

Though not built at the same time, two large and impressive temples once stood near the mound tombs of Kerma’s last and most powerful kings. The mud brick ruins of the more recent temple still dominate the cemetery landscape, while only

the foundations of the earlier one remain. In antiquity, both were elaborately decorated inside and out. The interior of the surviving temple once bore paintings of lions, hippos, and other animals, along with processions of boats. The exterior featured bright blue-glazed tiles, inlays, and moldings. In the absence of written records, scholars can only speculate about the nature of the religious practices that took place therein. The temples’ proximity to the royal cemetery, however, suggests that they were royal mortuary monuments.

 

Personal Adornment

The people of Kerma relished adornment, wearing beaded leather clothing and diadems, hats decorated with mica appliqués, hair ornaments, necklaces, earrings, bracelets, finger and toe rings, and amulets. Because most of the surviving examples come from graves that were plundered in antiquity, only an incomplete selection of personal embellishments survives. However, careful excavation and photography enable us to better understand how these adornments, such as those seen in this case, were worn.

 

center:

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

Belts with Glazed-quartz Pendants, 1700–1550 BC
glazed-quartz and faience

Rock crystal had special significance to the people of Kerma. In some cases, artists coated crystals with a translucent blue glaze, as seen here, and strung them with faience beads to create necklaces and belts. The two strands in this case were probably belts, as both were found near the owner’s waist. It is likely that the crystals served as amulets, although their exact meaning remains a mystery.

20.1729, 13.4128

 

upper left:

Necklace with Cylindrical Amulet Case, 1700–1550 BC
silver, glazed-quartz, carnelian, and faience

This necklace, found in a rare intact burial, incorporates both local and imported beads. The carnelian and blue-glazed quartz beads were sourced and produced locally, but the faience stars were imported from Egypt, as was the silver cylindrical amulet case. In Egypt, amulets of this type were worn by women, but the Nubian owner of this necklace was a man and likely a soldier, who may have brought it home as a souvenir of a raid into Egypt.

13.3969

 

lower left:

Scorpion Plaque, 1700–1550 BC
faience

This faience scorpion is one of a pair found on the body of a sacrificial victim in one of the large royal tombs at Kerma. Discovered near the stomach of the deceased, the scorpions would originally have been fastened to a cloth or leather garment with their heads pointed downward and the tails upward. Their meaning is uncertain, but they may have functioned as amulets to protect the wearer from scorpion stings.

20.1731

 

upper right:

String of Beads with Mounted Scarab, 2050–1700 BC
amethyst, steatite, carnelian, and gold

Found in the burial of an elite woman, this necklace incorporates both locally made beads and beads imported from Egypt. The ball beads and hawk amulet are types known from elsewhere in Kerma, while the teardrop-shaped beads and scarab are Egyptian. A Kerma jeweler probably added the gold setting to the scarab.

13.4111

 

from left to right, top to bottom:

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

String of “Melon” Beads, 1700–1550 BC
faience

Large, striated, spherical beads, as seen here, were fashionable at Kerma. Because of their resemblance to melons, they are known today as melon beads. They are made of faience, using a technique adopted from Egypt that combined a mixture of silica from sand or quartz, calcium, copper or copper ore, and an alkali such as ash. When fired, the beads formed a hard, shiny, blue- or green-glazed surface.

20.1720

 

Ball-bead Necklace, 1700–1550 BC
carnelian

Both men and women at Kerma wore beaded clothing and jewelry. Spherical carnelian beads, as seen in this necklace, were a very popular type. The owner of these beads also wore a leather skirt with a beaded belt, a necklace of blue-glazed quartz beads, and a garment adorned with more than 1,000 faience beads. These items were found on the owner in their grave.

20.1727

 

Amulet, 1700–1550 BC
carnelian

This large pendant, found in the temple near Kerma’s largest royal tomb, has no known parallels. Its meaning remains a mystery.

13.4228

 

PIANKHY’S QUEENS

King Piankhy had at least three queens and perhaps as many as five or six. They are difficult to identify in the archaeological record. Based on her titles, scholars believe that his principal wife might be his sister or half-sister, Khensa, whose pyramid stood not far from his own. Inscriptions from other graves identify three additional wives: Tabiry, Pekereslo, and Abalo, the mother of King Taharqa. At el-Kurru, archaeologists excavated a cluster of five tombs belonging to royal women apparently from Piankhy’s reign, some of whom must be his queens. One tomb was that of Queen Tabiry, whose name appears on grave goods. Another belonged to a woman named Nefrukekashta, who is also likely to be a queen. No names appear in the other three, one of which is the richest of the group, but two of them might be the tombs of Pekereslo and Abalo.

 

Kerma Pottery

Pottery vessels, which probably played an important role in funeral ceremonies, were among the most popular burial objects of the Classic Kerma Period (1700–1550 BC). A well-appointed burial included a jar and cups in thin-walled and finely handmade black-topped red ware, as seen in this case. The color combination was achieved by firing the vessels upside down, with the rims set into the ashes at the bottom of the kiln. The areas of the pot that were exposed to oxygen during firing turned red, while those that were not turned black.

Unique to Kerma are graceful tulip-shaped beakers. Less common are tall beakers that take the form of a stack of tulip beakers, and ovoid jars with long, narrow spouts and small loop handles. Other fanciful shapes include large bowls with strap handles and spouts in the form of animals, such as hippopotami and rams, both of which held special significance in the religious beliefs of Kerma.

 

Excavated at Kerma
Early–Classic Kerma Period

Vessels, 2400–1550 BC
pottery

13.4102, 13.4105, 13.4080, 13.5795, 20.2034, 20.1714, 20.2006, 20.2103

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom,
Dynasty 13
Excavated at Kerma

Statue of an Official, 1783–1640 BC
granodiorite

Among Egyptian objects found in the tomb of Kerma’s last ruler was this statue of a late Middle Kingdom official. He wears a heavy, shoulder-length head covering and a long, thick wraparound garment popular at this time in Egypt. The hieroglyphic inscription on the seat requests offerings from the Egyptian gods Ra and Anubis, but the text is broken off where the owner’s name would have been. He therefore remains anonymous.

14.723

 

EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE FOUND AT KERMA

The last and largest of Kerma’s royal tumuli, or burial mounds, held a quantity of Egyptian sculpture. Much of this sculpture probably came to Nubia as a result of military incursions into Egypt. MFA curator and archaeologist George Reisner was thoroughly confused by the presence of so much Egyptian material at Nubian sites. Trusting Egyptian sources that described Nubia as always subordinate to Egypt, and blinded by his own biases, Reisner misinterpreted Kerma as an Egyptian military outpost.

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom,
Dynasty 12
Excavated at Kerma

Head of a Man, 1784–1668 BC
granodiorite

This finely carved head was found between two of the latest Kerma royal tombs. It probably came from a sanctuary in southern Egypt, possibly at Elephantine, near present-day Aswan. It was likely taken to Kerma following a Nubian attack on southern Egypt.

20.1207

 

KERMA: Correcting the Story

George Andrew Reisner (1867–1945), a curator of Egyptian art at the MFA, oversaw the museum’s excavations in Egypt and the Sudan from 1910 to 1930. As an archaeologist, Reisner was far ahead of his time, introducing cutting- edge techniques in excavating and systematically recording and photographing sites and finds. His meticulous excavation records are still consulted today by scholars from around the world. Reisner, however, was not forward-thinking when it came to some of his beliefs. Like a number of western Egyptologists in the early 20th century, he believed that Africans were incapable of developing highly advanced civilizations. To rationalize the existing assertion that Egypt had clearly achieved this feat and that their neighbors could not, these and later scholars defied logic and perpetuated racist, pseudo-scientific convictions. They attempted to prove that ancient Egyptians had arrived in Egypt from lands north of the African continent.

Reisner’s prejudices led him to misinterpret his finds from Kerma. Because so much of the architecture and material culture was completely unfamiliar to Reisner, he originally—and correctly—believed that he had uncovered a civilization that had been unknown to his peers and predecessors. However, when he began to find Egyptian sculptures and inscriptions among the Nubian material, he made a serious miscalculation. Reisner concluded that Kerma was an Egyptian outpost in Nubia, ruled by an Egyptian governor who, under the influence of his Indigenous wife, decided to adopt “barbaric” local burial practices. Fine quality objects were attributed to Egyptian influence by Reisner, while mundane ones were identified as Nubian.

In an interesting twist of fate, Reisner’s own careful records, along with more recent discoveries and new, more open-minded reading of Egyptian sources, have been instrumental in proving that Reisner had it almost entirely backward. Scholars now believe that an army from Kerma attacked Egypt, looted sanctuaries, and brought Egyptian objects home as souvenirs and status symbols. These works demonstrate Kerma’s dominance over Egypt rather than the other way around.

 

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

Head of a Ram, 1700–1550 BC
glazed quartz

Rams and lions were prominent symbols of power, and animal figures made of blue-glazed quartz are particular to Kerma. The production technique for these figures involved first sculpting the stone, then coating it with a copper-containing glaze that turned blue when fired. Due to the fragility of the glaze, the figures have lost much of their color over time. The statues probably represent sacred animals or deities, although due to the lack of writing in the Kerma Period, scholars cannot be certain.

20.1180

 

Excavated at Kerma
Classic Kerma Period

Miniature Dagger, 1700–1550 BC
bronze, ivory, and gold

Found in the richly appointed tomb of a young boy, this miniature dagger imitates the full-sized versions found in the graves of warriors at Kerma. Its owner must have been the son of a prominent family.

21.11796b

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom
Excavated at Kerma

Stone Vessels, 1700–1550 BC
travertine and anhydrite

Egyptian stone vessels, such as these, were valued at Kerma as exotic, foreign items. They were also used as raw materials by Nubian artisans making inlays or jewelry. These two ointment jars were spared reuse and became funerary offerings.

20.1143a–b, 20.1149

 

Egyptian Imports

Objects from Egypt came to Kerma in a variety of ways. In early Kerma times (2040–1700 BC), trade with Egypt flourished, while later soldiers from Kerma brought back souvenirs of their raids on Egyptian territory, around 1700–1550 BC. Some of these objects were prized in their own right, such as attractive jewelry elements that were incorporated into new settings. Others, like stone and faience, were destined to be recycled into completely different items.

 

Egypt, Late Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom
Excavated at Kerma

Mirror, 1700–1550 BC
bronze

The bronze handle of this mirror imitates a handle wrapped in braided leather while at the top a pair of falcons sits facing outward on a lotus blossom. A nearly identical mirror was discovered in the Egyptian fortress at Semna, indicating the exchange of both objects and ideas between Egypt and Kerma.

20.1792

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom
Excavated at Kerma

Hippopotamus Figurine, 1991–1640 BC
faience

This figurine is the best-preserved faience hippopotamus found at Kerma. Egyptian burials of the Middle Kingdom sometimes included a blue faience statuette of a hippopotamus, thought to provide protection in the afterlife. The backs of these hippos are decorated with river vegetation drawn in black. Several of these statuettes found their way to Kerma, where they again accompanied the dead to their graves.

13.4121

 

 

MISREPRESENTING RACE

The ancient Egyptians positioned themselves as a superior civilization to all others. Yet there is no evidence that they made this distinction on the basis of physical characteristics such as skin color. Egyptian artists almost never made true representations; instead they depicted people in a stylized manner that adhered to established conventions. Typically, different skin tones indicated gender: red ochre was a traditional color for Egyptian men, while yellow ochre was used for women. Artists exaggerated their enemies’ features to emphasize their otherness. In Egyptian art, Nubians were cast in submissive roles and often depicted with dark skin, as seen in the tile depicting a Nubian chief on view nearby. In relation to this, popular media, such as National Geographic, have often called the Nubian kings who ruled over Egypt as the 25th Dynasty “Black Pharaohs.” This characterization was based on present-day concepts of race that create a false distinction of ethnic differences between the ancient Egyptians and Nubians.

Ancient Egypt, in fact, was a place of great cultural exchange, located at the crossroads of present-day Africa, Europe, and Asia. The theory that Egyptians were lighter-skinned arrivals from the Mediterranean world, developed by American and European Egyptologists in the 19th and early 20th centuries, is now categorically rejected. The racial makeup of ancient Egyptians remains the subject of debate and DNA studies. It is now widely accepted that Indigenous African peoples who settled in the Nile valley by about 4500 BC established the foundations for this distinctive civilization, after migrating from farther south. At various points in time, Africans from Nubia and Libya, as well as Semites, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, all adopted Egyptian customs—particularly, their beliefs in divine kingship and the afterlife—and made their own contributions to Egyptian culture.

 

Egypt, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Amenhotep III
Excavated at Dongola Province, Sudan

Menat (counterpoise), 1390–1352 BC
bronze

Menats, as seen here, originated as functional pieces of jewelry. They served as counterweights that hung at the back of broad beaded necklaces to keep them from drooping off the neck. Menats were sacred to the goddess Hathor, whose priestesses are shown holding them in their hands. In this beautiful openwork example, Hathor appears both as a cow in a papyrus boat and as a female deity with the distinctive features of Queen Tiye, the wife of Amenhotep III.

29.1199

 

Egypt, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Amenhotep III

Head of Queen Tiye, 1390–1352 BC
peridotite

King Amenhotep III built temples in Nubia to honor both himself and his wife, Queen Tiye, depicted here. Tiye had her own temple at the site of Sedeinga, where she was worshipped as a manifestation of Hathor, the Egyptian goddess of love and fertility. Images of Tiye are recognizable by their round faces, elaborate wigs, full lips, and large, almond-shaped eyes with heavy eyeliner. This small head of the queen, very likely from Tiye’s temple at Sedeinga, shows her in Hathor’s traditional crown of a solar disk surrounded by cow’s horns.

Gift of Herbert W. Jackson Pasha, 1921 21.2802

 

Egypt, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Akhenaten
Excavated at Gebel Barkal, Sudan

Statue of Viceroy Thutmose, 1349–1336 BC
granodiorite

This statue, unfortunately missing its upper part, portrays a viceroy named Thutmose, who oversaw Nubia in the late 18th Dynasty. He dedicated the statue at the temple of Gebel Barkal. The inscription is a prayer for “everything that goes forth on the offering tables of Amen lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands.” It remains unclear when the statue was broken.

During the New Kingdom, when most of Nubia was a province of Egypt, Nubia was administered by an official known as the viceroy of Kush. Viceroy Thutmose was such an official, who was responsible for the delivery of gold from Nubia to Egypt and oversaw the completion of the king’s building projects in Nubia.

16.476

 

Shawabty Figures

Figurines known as shawabties, from the Egyptian word for “one who answers,”were placed in tombs.Their role was to serve on behalf of the deceased in case they were called on to perform agricultural work in the afterlife. These examples come from a cemetery at the Egyptian administrative center at Aniba (south of Aswan and today ooded by Lake Nasser). Egyptians and Nubians lived side by side at Aniba, and the Nubians adopted a number of Egyptian burial customs, including the use of shawabties.

 

from left to right:

Egyptian, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18–19
Excavated at Aniba, Sudan

Shawabty, 1550–1186 BC
faience

Egypt, New Kingdom, Dynasty 20
Excavated at Aniba, Sudan

Shawabty, 1190–1075 BC
faience

MFA-University of Pennsylvania Exchange, 1991 1991.1164,.1161

 

narrated by Shomarka Keita

Nubia, Egypt, and the Concept of Race
duration: 4 minutes, 45 seconds, looped

Courtesy of Museum of Fine Arts Boston

 

The Second Cataract Forts: Middle Kingdom

The Egyptian pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty established their rule over the northern part of Nubia up to the Second Cataract of the Nile. Their goal was to secure control of
the gold mines and lucrative trade routes to central and southern Africa. To defend the border region, the Egyptians built a series of massive forts at strategic locations on either side of the Nile, where the river was narrow and the desert routes converged. Five of these forts were excavated by the Harvard-MFA expedition: Semna, Kumma, Uronarti, Shalfak, and Mirgissa.

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 13, 1783–1640 BC
Excavated at Semna, Sudan

Statuette of a Couple, 1783–1640 BC
granodiorite

This statuette depicts a man named Sehetepibra and his wife, Iwesenaset. It was made either for his tomb or to serve as a votive offering in a temple to enable the couple to share in gifts to the gods. The modest scale, dour facial expressions, long garments, and oversized hands and feet of the couple are characteristic of the statues made for low-level officials of the late Middle Kingdom. The wives and families of the soldiers often lived at the forts with them.

24.892

 

Military Ration Tokens

These wooden tokens date to the reign of Amenemhat III, one of the most powerful rulers of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. At this time, northern Nubia was under Egyptian control. The tokens were distributed to soldiers stationed at the fort on Uronarti Island, who used them to purchase their rations. The tokens’ shapes imitate conical bread loaves and flat, pita-like bread.

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Amenemhat III
Excavated at Uronarti, Sudan

Military Ration Token, 1844–1797 BC
wood

24.732

 

Military Ration Token, 1844–1797 BC
wood

24.733

 

Military Ration Token, 1844–1797 BC
wood and painted plaster

24.754

 

Weights for Measuring Gold

The Second Cataract forts functioned in part to control the trade in gold. A number of stone weights, including these, were discovered in the fort on Uronarti Island. Each weight is inscribed with the hieroglyphic symbol for “gold” and a series of strokes marking the number of units of gold to which the weight corresponded.

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom
Excavated at Uronarti, Sudan

Stone Weight for Weighing Gold, 1971–1550 BC
serpentine

24.750

 

Stone Weight for Weighing Gold, 1971–1550 BC
granite

24.751

 

Stone Weight for Weighing Gold, 1971–1550 BC
limestone

24.752

 

Egypt, New Kingdom, Dynasty 20, reign of Ramesses III
Excavated at Medinet Habu, palace of Ramesses III, Thebes, Egypt

Tile with Nubian Chief, 1184–1153 BC
polychrome faience

This is one of a group of glazed tiles depicting bound foreign princes that adorned the lower jambs of a palace doorway. Egypt’s traditional enemies often appear as caricatures in Egyptian art, with their features exaggerated to emphasize their otherness.

Emily Esther Sears Fund, 1903 03.1570

 

Egypt, Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom

Clappers, 1985–1295 BC
wood

The ends of these wooden clappers terminate in generic heads of Nubians. In beating time, the musicians would be symbolically bashing the heads of Egypt’s traditional enemies.

Marilyn M. Simpson Fund, 2017 2017.75.1–2

 

NEIGHBORS ON THE NILE:
Nubia and Egypt

Ancient Nubia and Egypt share an intertwined history. Egypt coveted access to Nubian gold mines and luxury goods—ivory, ebony, incense, and cheetah skins—available through trade. For long periods, part or all of Nubia fell under Egyptian control. Egyptian propaganda cast Nubians as the barbaric “other.” Yet, in reality, Egyptians and Nubians lived in proximity, traded, shared culture and ideas, and intermarried. Nubians even rose to the highest ranks of the Egyptian government.

The first period of Egyptian occupation, during the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC), was confined to Lower (northern) Nubia. The Egyptians established their southern border at Semna, just beyond the Second Cataract of the Nile, not far from the present-day border between Egypt and Sudan. A string of massive fortresses along the river guarded the frontier and maintained control of the lucrative mines and trade both by river and land. The weakening of the Egyptian state at the end of the Middle Kingdom and the rise of the Nubian kingdom of Kerma to the south brought this period to an end.

The second phase of Egyptian rule, corresponding to Egypt’s New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC), was longer and covered a more extensive territory. All of northern Nubia was absorbed into the Egyptian empire. The Middle Kingdom forts were restored, reoccupied, and served more as administrative and religious centers. Great temples arose along the Nile, where the conquering pharaohs were worshipped as gods alongside the traditional Egyptian deities. The Egyptians maintained control over Nubia for the next 500 years.

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Napatan Period, reign of Akharitene

Statue of King Akharitene, 353–340 BC
granodiorite

This statue, discovered in debris outside the temple of Amen, was made nearly 300 years after the nearby statue of Senkamanisken. Yet in some ways it is remarkably similar. Akharitene stands in the same pose and wears the same Egyptian-style kilt. He has a hieroglyphic inscription on the back pillar describing him as King of Upper and Lower Egypt, despite the fact that Nubia had long ago ceded control of Egypt.One clear difference between the two sculptures is in the kings’ physiques: Akharitene is stouter and more compact than his tall, slender ancestor. Napatan artists were no longer taking inspiration from Egyptian models but instead were looking to statuary closer to home.

23.735

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Napatan Period, reign of Senkamanisken

Statue of King Senkamanisken, 643–623 BC
granite gneiss

In 1916, excavators at Gebel Barkal discovered a cache of royal statues, including this example, that had been broken in antiquity and buried in a large pit. This statue portrays King Senkamanisken, a prolific builder at the site. While Napatan kings had already lost control of Egypt to the Assyrians prior to his reign, Senkamanisken still claimed the title of King of Upper and Lower Egypt.

He is shown with the powerful physique, broad shoulders, muscular arms and legs, and narrow waist characteristic of early Napatan sculpture. His garments and accessories—a kilt worn only by royalty, a cap-crown with double uraeus cobras, and a necklace bearing ram heads representing Amen, the god tied to Nubian kingship—identify him as a ruler. The kilt, headdress, jewelry, and sandals, which now appear rough and unpolished, were originally covered with gold leaf.

23.731

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Napatan Period, reign of Senkamanisken, 643–623 BC

Obelisk of King Senkamanisken, 643–623 BC
granite

King Senkamanisken renovated and expanded a small temple at the foot of the sacred mountain at Gebel Barkal. At least one small obelisk, of which this is a fragment, once stood nearby. It was probably one of a pair. The inscriptions on the four sides, written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, include the name and titles of the king. Below the cartouche bearing his name are words spoken by the god Amen: “I knew him in the womb, before he was born.”

20.5434

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Early Napatan Period

Arrowheads, 860–840 BC
flint

Throughout their history, the ancient Nubians were famous for their skill in archery. Among the most popular finds from the earliest Napatan royal burials were small arrowheads made of beautifully colored stones, such as these. It is possible that they were made for use by the deceased in the afterlife.

21.360, 21.361, 21.363–366

 

The Tomb of Queen Khensa

Queen Khensa, the daughter of King Kashta and both the sister and wife of King Piankhy, was the most important queen buried at el-Kurru. Although her tomb was robbed, a deposit of silver and bronze ritual vessels survived out- side the entrance to her burial chamber. She seems to have had a fascination with natural history, as she was interred with a collection of unusual stones, shells, and fossils, along with a rare and beautiful agate cup.

 

Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy
Excavated at el-Kurru

Inscribed Ball, 743–712 BC
steatite

The exact function of this object is unknown, but the inscriptions suggest that it had sacred powers. The cartouches on the side read “Khensa, may Amen give life and health.” Between the cartouches it says, “May Amen give all stability and prosperity, all life, all health, and all joy.”

21.313

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

Inscribed “Shell”, 743–712 BC
steatite

This realistically carved stone shell depicts a salt-water species native to the Red Sea. It is inscribed with a hieroglyphic text requesting gifts of sacred oils on festival days.

24.942

 

Cup, 743–712 BC
agate

Carved from a single piece of banded agate, this hemispherical bowl was probably used to grind cosmetic pigments. At one time it had a lid. The artist used the natural bands and swirls in the stone to create a beautiful decorative pattern.

21.300.1

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Tanwetamani

Canopy Poles, 664–653 BC
bronze and paste

These two mysterious objects, along with a third one, were discovered outside the door leading to the burial chamber of Queen Khensa. They may have been supports for poles holding a canopy that was carried over the queen’s head in processions. Both take the form of slender arms wearing elaborate bracelets, but the design of the bracelets differs. Details of the bracelets were filled with multihued paste, so the objects would have been brightly colored.

21.3110a–c, 21.3111

 

Ceremonial Vessels, 664–653 BC
silver

The excavators discovered these two vessels inside a large offering tray just outside the burial chamber of Queen Khensa. Their location suggests that they played a part in the funeral ritual. The large, cylindrical container bears an inscription: “Khensa, beloved of Mut, Mistress of Heaven.” The two-spouted bowl was used to pour a libation, possibly of milk. The partially covered top would prevent the liquid from spilling out prematurely.

21.3091, 21.3092

 

Faience Pectorals

Large faience pectorals, sometimes found strung on beaded necklaces, were popular among royal women during the reign of King Piankhy (743–712 BC). Most of the examples shown here were found in the tombs of his queens. They demonstrate enormous variation and creativity, combining Indigenous imagery with motifs borrowed from Egypt. Deities such as the grotesque but benevolent Bes and Pataikos are favorites, intended to offer protection to the wearer. Winged goddesses and scarabs have solar connotations. Other figures remain enigmatic.

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

1. Amulet of Pataikos, 743–712 BC
faience

In this amulet, Pataikos holds a pair of large knives while two lions sit at his feet. Baboons climb on his shoulders, and a scarab beetle sits on his head. Pataikos was a fearsome but popular deity believed to ward off danger. He usually appears in the nude.

24.622

 

2. Eye of Horus Amulet, 743–712 BC
faience

The maker of this amulet combined several popular motifs to create an unusual pectoral filled with protective imagery. The Eye of Horus was the most widespread amulet in Egypt and Nubia, believed to ward off illness and injury. In this case, a pair of winged serpents and a smaller eye fill the space between the eye and eyebrow. Below are a winged scarab and the seated figure of the moon god Thoth.

24.679

 

3. Amulet of a Double Falcon-headed Deity, 743–712 BC
faience

The solar deity represented by this unusual amulet remains unidentified. His body is human, and his head takes the form of two falcon-headed serpents crowned with sun disks.

24.682

 

4. Hathor head Amulet, 743–712 BC
faience

The face of the cow-eared goddess Hathor appears in the center of this amulet. Above her head is a shrine, and beneath her is a beaded broad necklace, which is also the hieroglyphic symbol for gold. The cobras on either side of her sit atop sacred eye symbols and wear the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt on the right and left, respectively.

24.659

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Tanwetamani

5. Menat Necklace, 664–653 BC
faience

Menats were originally counterweights for broad, heavy necklaces, but by the Napatan Period they functioned as amulets offering protection in the afterlife. Several examples often occur in a single tomb. In at least one case, they were found on the stairs leading to the burial chamber of a queen, suggesting that they played a role in the funeral ritual.

21.10574

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

6. Shrine-shaped Amulet, 743–712 BC
faience

This unusual, three-dimensional amulet takes the form of a shrine; in it stands a falcon-headed deity. On top is a scarab beetle, symbolizing rebirth. On the sides and back are winged goddesses, one with the head of a lioness and the other two fully human in appearance.

24.618

 

7. Winged Scarab Pectoral, 743–712 BC
faience

24.1019.2

 

8. Shrine-shaped Pectoral, 743–712 BC
faience

On this shrine-shaped pectoral, a nude god strides through a marsh setting. He wears a side lock and a royal uraeus cobra and carries large bunches of fruit or flowers in each hand. His chubby physique, nudity, and sidelock identify him as a child. He is probably Harpocrates, the infant version of the god Horus.

24.666

 

9. Statuette of Bes, 743–712 BC
faience

Bes was a friendly deity despite his hostile appearance. He has the mane and ears of a lion and a long, lolling tongue. He was a guardian of the household, especially the bedroom, where he defended sleeping people from unseen dangers. In the tomb, he offered eternal protection to the occupant.

21.11766

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

10. Amulet of a Ram-headed God, 743–712 BC
faience

This unusual amulet portrays an unidentified deity and combines the features of more common amulets. He has the chubby nude body of Pataikos, the ram head and tall headdress of Amen, and wings usually associated with goddesses and winged scarabs.

24.696

 

11. Amulet of a Goddess, 743–712 BC
faience

Like its three-dimensional counterpart also in this case, this amulet portrays a winged, lioness-headed goddess wearing a sun disk on her head. In this example, she wears a long sheath dress.

24.627

 

12. Shrine Pectoral, 743–712 BC
faience

This shrine-shaped pectoral features imagery on both sides. The funerary god Osiris sits between his wife, Isis, and son, Horus, beneath a cornice with a solar disk on the front. On the reverse are the protective god Bes, a crocodile, and other supernatural figures.

21.304

 

13. Amulet of Ra-Horakhty, 743–712 BC
faience

In this Egyptian-style amulet, the sun god Ra-Horakhty sits facing right, with the hieroglyphic symbol for “life” on top of his knees. He wears an elaborate headdress consisting
of a tall crown adorned with a ram’s horns, plumes, uraeus cobras, and a solar disk.

24.675

 

14. Winged Scarab Pectorals, 743–712 BC
faience

In Nubia, as in Egypt, the scarab beetle was a symbol of rebirth and transformation. These two openwork amulets depict a four-winged scarab holding a rosette between its hind legs. Amulets of this type are among the most popular in the royal tombs of el-Kurru.

24.713

 

15. Amulet of a Seated Sphinx, 743–712 BC
faience

24.630

 

16. Amulet of Bes, 743–712 BC
faience

Despite his frightening appearance—part human and part lion—Bes was a benevolent deity who protected women and children by frightening away threatening forces.

24.674

 

17. Amulet of a Goddess, 743–712 BC
faience

The name of this lioness goddess remains unknown. The solar disk on her head suggests that she is associated with the sun. Her nude form reflects the ideal female body type in Nubia, with large breasts and a rounded figure. The serpents on her shoulders are symbols of royal authority.

24.616

 

18. Amulet of a Goddess, 743–712 BC
faience

This nude, winged goddess wears a complex headdress featuring a lunar crescent, solar disk, and tall plumes. The cobras on her upper arms wear the same type of headgear. Her identity is uncertain, but she may well be the lunar counterpart to the lioness deity also in this case.

24.639

 

19. Amulet of a Ram-headed Aegis, 743–712 BC
faience

This amulet takes the form of a shield, or aegis. The ram head, with long, curling horns, represents Amen, the most important god in the Nubian pantheon.

24.641

 

20. Winged Scarab Pectoral Necklace, 743–712 BC
faience

24.1019.1

 

21. Bead with Rosette, 743–712 BC
faience

On one side of this large bead is an elaborate rosette. On the other is a pattern of concentric circles. The bead is grooved around the edge and is pierced both transversely and vertically, suggesting that it might have been part of a more complex piece of jewelry.

24.646

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Shebitka

Collar, 712–698 BC
electrum

Discovered in the tomb of a queen, this necklace is composed of two thick sheets of electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver. These sheets are joined by hinges with removable pins to allow for the collar’s removal or adjustment. On the front is an image of a kneeling, winged god wearing a sun disk on his head. On the back is another solar image, a scarab, symbolizing transformation and rebirth. Both appliqués are in the repoussé technique, in which the decoration is pressed into a metal sheet from behind, forming a figure in raised relief. The artist then added details from the front and soldered the finished figure to its backing. The collar’s edges are trimmed with notched wire.

21.307

 

The Jewelry of Piankhy’s Queens

The jewelry from the tombs of royal women at el-Kurru is among the most exquisite to survive from antiquity. Some of it may be Egyptian in origin, part of the wealth King Piankhy brought back from his campaigns. Whether local or foreign, the artists used gold, silver, rock crystal, enamel, and semi-precious stones to achieve unique and stunning results. Some of the jewelry is too fragile for use in life and must be funerary, while other pieces show signs of wear.

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

1. Amulet of Imsety, 743–712 BC
gold

Imsety was one of the Egyptian funerary deities adopted by the Nubians for protecting the internal organs of the dead. He appears here as a mummy with a human head and long wig.

24.1784

 

2. Amulet of Hathor Nursing a Queen, 743–712 BC
gilded silver

This amulet shows Hathor, the goddess of love and fertility, nursing Queen Nefrukekashta, providing divine nourishment for the afterlife. Images of Hathor nursing kings appear
in Egypt, but in this Nubian example, she nurses a queen, indicating the high esteem and status enjoyed by Nubian royal women.

24.928

 

3. Amulet of Mut, 743–712 BC
silver

Among the burial gifts of Queen Nefrukekashta were several amulets representing Egyptian deities. This cast silver figure of Mut was the largest. Mut’s importance to the Nubians derives from her position as the wife of Amen, the supreme god of the Napatan pantheon.

21.322

 

4. Eye of Horus Amulet, 743–712 BC
lapis lazuli

This amulet represents the sacred eye of the sky god Horus, a potent symbol of well-being. It is made of lapis lazuli, a stone imported from what is now Afghanistan.

24.634

 

5. Pendant with a Ram-headed Sphinx on a Column, 743–712 BC
gilded silver, lapis lazuli, and glass

6. Pendant with a Ram-headed Sphinx on a Column, 743–712 BC
gilded silver and peridotite

When he appears in Nubian art, Amen, supreme deity of both Egypt and Nubia, takes the form of a ram, an animal revered since the time of Kerma. On these two amulets, from the same tomb as the Hathor pendant nearby, Amen appears as a sphinx sitting on top of a column. The composite creature combines the strength and regal nature of the lion with the identity of Amen.

24.972, 24.974

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

7. Bowl with Cattle, 1075–712 BC
faience

Made in Egypt not long before the reign of the Nubian king Piankhy, this bowl ultimately found its way into the tomb of one of his queens. The scene is popular on bowls of this type—in the center, a cow, probably a manifestation of the fertility goddess Hathor, reclines in a marsh. Four bulls stride below the rim.

24.1089

 

8. Amulet of a Cat, 743–712 BC
dolomitic marble

This amulet of a seated cat probably represents Bastet, an Egyptian goddess of fertility and motherhood. Bastet may have appealed to the Nubians in part because of their longstanding tradition of portraying deities in animal form.

21.305

 

9. Ram-headed Amulet Case, 743–712 BC
rock crystal and gilded silver

In this unusual amulet, a ram’s head, symbolizing the god Amen, sits on a hollow octagonal crystal column. A cylindrical amulet case designed to hold either a ritual substance or a prayer on papyrus or sheet metal once filled the center of the column. The cylinder and the god’s tall crown are now missing.

24.976

 

10. Amulet of Maat, 743–712 BC
malachite and gilded silver

The goddess Maat embodied the Egyptian, and later Nubian, ideal of justice and world order. She wears a feather, against which the heart of the deceased would be weighed at the time of divine judgment. Only if the heart was lighter than the feather could the deceased proceed into a blessed afterlife.

21.323

 

11. Hathor-headed Crystal Pendant, 743–712 BC
rock crystal and gold

Discovered in the richest of the royal women’s tombs at el-Kurru, this pendant is a masterpiece of metalwork. A gold tube encased in a rock crystal sphere may originally have held a prayer spell written on papyrus or gold leaf. On top of the orb is the head of the fertility goddess Hathor. Although it appears to be solid cast, it is actually made of multiple pieces of sheet gold shaped and seamlessly soldered together.

21.321

 

12. Isis Knot Amulet, 743–712 BC
red jasper

A type of amulet known as the tyet represents a knotted loop of cloth from which hangs a long sash flanked by a pair of loops. These amulets were closely associated with the goddess Isis and her protective powers.

24.1086

 

from left to right:

Horse Burials

When Piankhy recorded his victory over Egypt on a commemorative stele, he emphasized several personal traits. The ruler mentioned his devotion to Amen, his sense of justice, his courage, and, interestingly, his fondness for horses. After besieging and defeating the Egyptian city of Hermopolis, he entered the palace grounds, where he was offered but rejected the royal wives and daughters. In the stables, however, he was deeply moved by the sad state of the horses. Piankhy said to the vanquished ruler: “How much more painful it is in my heart that my horses have been starved than at any other crime you have committed.” He then seized the horses. Piankhy, along with his successors Shebitka, Shabaka, and Tanwetamani, buried teams of horses in the royal cemetery at el-Kurru, adorned with decorations of beads and precious metals—essentially “horse jewelry.”

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Shebitka

Horse Trappings of King Shebitka, 712–698 BC
bronze, faience, and cowrie shell

The horses of King Shebitka wore elaborate adornments, as seen here. These included strings of beads, including large, heavy, bronze ball beads, cartouches, sacred eye amulets, and floral pendants made of faience and cowrie shells.

19.2876, 21.10564, 21.10565, 21.10567, 21.10568

 

Horse Trappings of King Shabaka, 698–690 BC
faience

King Shabaka’s horses were buried wearing lavish “jewelry,” as seen in this case. The nets of multicolored beads feature amulets of the fertility goddess Hathor and cartouches bearing Shabaka’s name. Floral pendants would have jingled as the horses moved. The excavators were able to reconstruct part of one net based on the arrangement of beads found in the grave.

21.10560

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

Offering Table of King Piankhy, 743–712 BC
gilded bronze

When the excavators uncovered this offering stand in the tomb of Piankhy, it was flattened. It required a great deal of conservation treatment to bring it back to the condition you see today. In the center of the tray, a palm-shaped column supports a small bowl. Four cups shaped like open lotus blossoms are riveted to the stand around it. Similar stands depicted in two-dimensional offering scenes confirm its ritual function, although no other actual examples survive. The cups and bowl were probably receptacles for oil or incense burned during religious ceremonies.

21.3238

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Shebitka

Leg from a Funerary Bed, 712–698 BC
bronze

Despite adopting many Egyptian burial practices, early Napatan kings and queens were buried on beds, reviving a tradition tracing back to Kerma. This bed leg is one of a pair found in its original position in the tomb of a queen. The leg sits on the back of a goose resting atop a base decorated with papyrus plants. The square hole near the top was for joining the leg to a wooden bed, which has not survived. Carefully incised feathers and facial features give the goose a realistic appearance.

21.2815

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

Large Alabastron, 743–712 BC
travertine (Egyptian alabaster)

A type of tall, bag-shaped vessel—known today as an alabastron—was popular throughout Nubia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world during the 8th century BC. Most jars are far smaller, like the one in the case nearby. This example is truly monumental.

21.11806

 

Excavated at Meroe
Napatan Period

Vessel in the Form of a Bound Oryx, 700–650 BC
travertine (Egyptian alabaster)

This ointment jar, in the shape of an oryx, is one of three similar vessels discovered in the richly appointed tomb of a young woman. The oryx, a species of antelope native to Africa, is depicted with its legs bound beneath it, ready for slaughter. The design of this jar is clever—when it was not in use, the bound legs form a stable base and the animal’s upturned neck would prevent the valuable contents from spilling. When in use, the legs serve as a handle. The eyes were originally inlaid, and the horns were made of dark stone. The current wooden horns are modern reproductions.

24.879

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Piankhy

Bowl, 743–712 BC
slate

21.2629

 

ARCHAEOLOGY THEN & NOW

In 1913, the Sudanese government granted George Reisner permission to undertake excavations in Kerma on behalf of the Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition. In 1916, the expedition moved to Napata, and then to Meroe in 1920. Reisner’s primary interest was to excavate temples and tombs—in part because they were the most likely to yield objects, and his work was sponsored by a museum looking to build a collection.

Throughout Reisner’s excavations, Sudan was ruled jointly by Great Britain and Egypt. According to the agreement with the Sudan Antiquities Department, staffed by British officials, the objects and records from excavations were divided between Boston and Khartoum. As a result, the MFA has the most important collection of Nubian art outside the Sudan.

A century later, international teams continue to work at every accessible site that Reisner excavated, and other sites as well. Those teams often employ cutting-edge techniques, but their starting points have often been Reisner’s notes, records, and photographs, preserved by the MFA. Current technologies, like micro-analyzing floral and fauna remains, can reveal new information about climate, diet, and religious practices. Google Earth, ground penetrating radar, and magnetometer surveys help identify structures underground so that excavation can be precisely targeted. In 2013, a University of Michigan Expedition began the search for the exact location of the city of Napata, with hopes that its excavation will provide crucial insight into a key era of Nubian history.

 

ARCHAEOLOGY THEN

The objects in this case were archived following the Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expeditions of the early 19th century. Ephemera such as these offer insights into the lives, work, and methods of archaeologists at that time.

 

from left to right, top to bottom:

Surveyor’s compass in mahogany case used by the Harvard-MFA Expedition in the field.

1947.19.1

 

Cigar box used to store small finds at the dig house.

21.1853–1861

 

English excavation diary for Begarawiya (Meroe) 1922–1923 kept by Dows Dunham, assistant to George Reisner and a curator of Egyptian Art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The page shows jewelry from pyramid W5, including gold bracelets and earrings on view in the last gallery of this exhibition.

915782

 

Permit to Enter the Sudan issued to George A. Reisner by Sudan Government, January 3, 1921.

20.1863

 

Arabic excavation diary for Barkal 1916 and Nuri 1916 kept by head foreman Said Ahmed Said, entry for April 7 (1916):

(It was) verified for us today that the Nuri Pyramids are the tombs of the kings and every king in them has grandeur/nobility and has a temple at Gebel Barkal, and the proof is on those statues which we found at Gebel Barkal in Letter (Area?) “A”.

And in No. 904, in it which is written a name (of a king) and indicates the length of a reign at Nuri. I photographed them carved roughly on granite stone and its subject is in the [same] grandeur/nobility that was present at Gebel Barkal. This is a map of the Nuri Pyramids.

915756

 

Excavation diary page on which George Reisner recorded the inscriptions on the royal shawabties of King Senkamanisken.

915761

 

An assortment of empty cigarette boxes and matchboxes used to store small finds at the dig house.

21.1853–1861

 

Letter from George Reisner to Mr. Currie, head of the Sudan education department, requesting approval and funds to expand the excavation plan in Kerma.

20.1862

 

 

narrated by Vanessa Davies

How Egyptologists Removed Ancient Egypt from Africa
duration: 5 minutes, 4 seconds, looped

Courtesy of Museum of Fine Arts Boston

 

 

SHAWABTIES

Napatan kings adopted from Egypt the dedication of figurines known as shawabties as part of their funerary rites. The name shawabty means “one who answers” in ancient Egyptian, and in Egypt, shawabties were believed to perform agricultural service in the afterlife on behalf of the deceased. The figurines portray their owners as mummies carrying hoes and wearing bags for produce on their backs.

Shawabties seem to have served a somewhat different purpose in Napatan mortuary practices. While available to any Egyptian who could afford them, shawabties in Nubia were limited to use by kings and queens. Because they were carefully placed standing against the walls of the burial chamber, surrounding the coffin, they might have served as sentinels to guard the body.

As was often the case when Napatan rulers took on Egyptian religious elements, they far outstripped the Egyptians in scale. Some Napatan kings were buried with more than 1,000 shawabties. The finest and largest groups of shawabties to survive from Nubia are those from the pyramids of kings Taharqa and Senkamanisken at Nuri.

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Shawabties of King Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine, magnesite, and serpentinite

20.212, 20.226, 20.227, 20.228, 21.11858, 21.11859, 21.14800, 21.14936

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Shawabties of King Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine, magnesite, and serpentinite

20.224, 20.237, 21.2906, 21.2909, 21.2991, 21.3008, 21.3045

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Shawabties of King Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine, magnesite, and serpentinite

20.215, 20.216, 20.223, 20.234, 20.243, 21.2905, 21.2910, 21.2990, 21.2998, 21.3010, 21.3020, 21.2914

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Shawabties of King Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine, magnesite, and serpentinite

20.222, 20.235, 20.240, 20.242, 21.860, 21.2965, 21.2993, 21.3006, 21.11701, 21.11856, 21.14972, 21.15074

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Shawabties of King Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine, magnesite, and serpentinite

20.225, 20.238, 20.244, 21.2908, 21.3018

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Shawabties of King Aspelta, 593–568 BC
faience

21.330, 21.331, 21.337, 21.373, 21.447

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Senkamanisken

Shawabties of King Senkamanisken, 643–623 BC
serpentinite and faience

20.2112, 21.2644, 21.2651, 21.2652, 21.2673, 21.2719, 21.2726, 21.11750, 21.11822

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Senkamanisken

Shawabties of King Senkamanisken, 643–623 BC
serpentinite and faience

20.2113, 21.2715, 21.2728, 21.3038, 21.3039, 21.3040, 21.11705, 21.11825, 21.11828, 21.11832, 21.15230

 

NAPATAN ROYAL TOMBS AT NURI

Nubia’s most powerful king, Taharqa (reigned 690–664 BC), chose a new burial place at Nuri, across the Nile from Gebel Barkal. Nearly all other Napatan royal tombs built thereafter were located at Nuri. With the exception of Taharqa’s, the Nuri pyramids date to the period after Nubia had lost control over Egypt, yet they continue to share features with earlier Egyptian pyramids.

These burial structures were steep-sided with decorated chapels attached on the eastern side, where the royal descendants could come to leave offerings. Subterranean burial chambers were reached by staircases descending from outside the tomb; most are now flooded with ground water. Under each corner of the pyramid were foundation deposits: offerings meant to ensure the monuments’ stability.

Royal coffins were made of gilded wood, inlaid with glass and semiprecious stone. Unfortunately, none survived the ravages of insects, moisture, and ancient tomb robbers. In some cases, all that remains are eyes and eyebrows from their mummy- shaped lids. At least two Napatan kings—Anlamani (reigned 623–593 BC) and Aspelta (reigned 593–568 BC)—had massive granite sarcophagi inscribed with religious texts to provide guidance for the afterlife. Around the walls of the burial chambers stood shawabty funerary figurines, numbering at times in the hundreds.

All the royal tombs were robbed in antiquity, so one can only imagine the wealth once contained in them. Yet one magnificent group of objects from the tomb of Aspelta was spared when a portion of ceiling collapsed and hid the objects from view. The precious materials and exquisite workmanship of “Aspelta’s treasure,” on view here, offer a tantalizing glimpse of what is missing.

 

King Anlamani Foundation Deposit

Pits dug beneath each corner of a royal pyramid contained foundation deposits. These included sets of small tablets in a variety of materials, each inscribed with the king’s name. With them were placed sets of faience cups, each bearing the name of a deity and containing a natural substance, such as gum arabic or charcoal, thought to have divine properties. Also buried were the remains of ritual meals: animal bones, a grindstone (probably for milling grain for bread), and pottery vessels.

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Figurines of Taweret, 623–593 BC
low-fired clay

As a protector of women during pregnancy and childbirth, Taweret was a favorite household goddess in both Egypt and Nubia. She takes the form of a hippopotamus standing on her rear legs, with the paws of a lioness, the breasts of a woman, and the tail of a crocodile. In a funerary context, she aided the rebirth of the dead in the afterlife. In Nubia, she first appeared on the footboards of funerary beds during the Kerma Period.

25.665, 25.666

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Djed Pillar Pectoral, 623–593 BC
faience

This large pectoral takes the form of a djed pillar, the Egyptian hieroglyph for “stability.” It is believed to represent the backbone of the funerary god Osiris.

25.669

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Votive Plaques, 623–593 BC
faience, jasper, lapis lazuli, amazonite, travertine, quartz, gold, lead, silver, and bronze

20.627, 20.629, 20.631, 20.633-642

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Votive Cups, 623–593 BC
faience

20.976, 20.986, 20.977, 20.979, 20.980, 20.982, 20.985, 20.988

 

Excavated at el-Kurru and Nuri
Napatan Period, reigns of Shabaka and Amaninatakelebte

Mirrors of Kings Shabaka and Amaninatakelebte, 698–690 BC and 538–519 BC
bronze and gilded silver; silver, gold, and Egyptian blue

Although very similar in style, these two mirrors come from the tombs of kings who lived more than a century apart. The handle of Shabaka’s mirror (right) takes the form of a column with a palm capital. Around the column stand four female figures—the goddesses Hathor, Sekhmet, and Mut along with an unidentified queen or princess. The mirror from the tomb of Amaninatakelebte (left) features a column with a lotus capital. The figures surrounding it are male and include the gods Amen, Ra, and Ra-Horakhty along with Amaninatakelebte himself. At the top of the column, directly above Amen, Amaninatakelebte’s name appears in a cartouche.

21.338a–d, 21.318

 

Treasure of King Aspelta

Despite being plundered by robbers in ancient times, the pyramid of King Aspelta yielded extraordinary funerary objects. These items were hidden when a portion of the tomb ceiling collapsed. This treasure included eight pairs of oversized tweezers in gold and silver, each with ornately decorated handles, vessels in stone and precious metal, and a gold lid with an elaborate loop-in-loop chain.

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Cylinder Sheath, 593–568 BC
gold

Alabastron of King Aspelta, 593–568 BC
anhydrite

Among the finest yet most enigmatic objects in Aspelta’s treasure were gold and gilded-silver cylinders. These objects are decorated with winged goddesses, friezes of rams’ heads, cobras, lotus blossoms, and papyrus buds. The bottoms of some cylinders are adorned with oral motifs, while the tops are left open. Their function remains a mystery.

21.339a–b, 20.1071

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Ewer, 593–568 BC
gold

One of the precious items from Aspelta’s treasure is this gold ewer with the king’s name and titles inscribed on its handle. The top of the handle bears a lotus blossom, carefully chased, or formed, from the metal surface. The metalsmith who created this ewer formed the vessel from a single gold sheet. Only the handle was made separately.

20.341

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Lid of a Jar, 593–568 BC
gold

Tweezers, 593–568 BC
gold

One of eight pairs of oversized tweezers found in Aspelta’s treasure, this example features a handle with intricately incised papyrus blossoms.

20.342, 20.334

 

Canopic Jars

One of the Egyptian funerary practices the rulers of Napata adopted was the use of canopic jars. These vessels housed the deceased’s internal organs removed during the process of mummification. Each set contained four jars with lids representing the four Sons of Horus, funerary deities believed to protect the jar’s contents. The human- headed Imsety protected the liver; the jackal-headed Duamutef, the stomach; the hawk-headed Qebehsenuef, the intestines; and the baboon-headed Hapy, the lungs.

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Canopic Jar of Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine

23.738

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Canopic Jar of Anlamani, 623–593 BC
travertine

23.742

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Head of a Canopic Jar of Queen Atakhebasken, 690–664 BC
travertine

20.1063

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Canopic Jar of Taharqa, 690–664 BC
travertine

23.739

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

Canopic Jar of Atakhebasken, 690–664 BC
travertine

23.744

 

from top to bottom, left to right:

Heart Scarabs

The Nubians adopted the use of heart scarabs from Egypt but created examples that far exceeded those of the Egyptians in size and quality. They also limited their use to the royal family. The scarabs bear a spell from the Book of the Dead requesting that the heart testify favorably at the time of divine judgment, when it would be weighed and expected to prove lighter than a feather.

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Eyes from a Royal Coffin, 593–568 BC
bronze and stone

This particularly large pair of eyes comes from the coffin of King Aspelta. Mummies of kings and queens were buried in sets of two or three mummiform coffins, one inside the other. None of these wooden coffins survived the damp of the tombs or the ravages of insects and tomb robbers. Their non-wooden parts, however, often remained, revealing that the coffins were once covered with gold foil, inlaid with colored stones, and given eyes of obsidian and alabaster rimmed with bronze.

20.2029a–d

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Harsiyotef

Model Flail, 404–396 BC
gold

The funerary god Osiris usually appears holding a pair of tools. These attributes are associated with herding, namely a shepherd’s crook and a flail, as seen here, for driving away flies. This example in gold helped to identify the dead King Harsiyotef with, with Osiris. It was originally inlaid with colored enamel, traces of which survive.

20.329

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Atlanersa

Model Axe, 653–643 BC
gold

Weapons such as axes and maces were emblems of authority. In a funerary setting, they were intended to enable the deceased to ward off dangers in the afterlife.

20.260

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Amaninatakelebte

Winged Isis Pectoral, 538–519 BC
gold

Isis, wife of the funerary god Osiris, was a powerful, maternal protector of the dead. This pectoral of Isis was originally sewn into the mummy wrappings of King Amaninatakelebte, as the pierced tabs indicate. The exquisite treatment of the goddess’s feathers and bead net dress attests to the work of a master goldsmith. In her outstretched hands she holds two hieroglyphic symbols. In her left is a sail, symbolizing breath, and in her right is the ankh, the hieroglyph for life. The pectoral therefore conveys a message, “the breath of life,” which Isis would bestow upon Amaninatakelebte in the afterlife.

20.276

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Heart Scarab of Queen Asata, 593–568 BC
green jasper

20.643

 

Excavated at el-Kurru
Napatan Period, reign of Tanwetamani

Heart Scarab of King Tanwetamani, 664–653 BC
sodic rhyolite

21.302

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Atlanersa

Vulture Amulet, 653-643 BC
gold

20.255

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Offering Stand of King Anlamani, 623–593 BC
granite

This offering stand once stood in front of a large granite stele set into the wall in the offering chapel of King Anlamani. By the time of its discovery, it had fallen into the stairway leading down to the king’s burial chamber. The Egyptian inscriptions list the king’s names in cartouches, “King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ankhkara, son of Ra, Anlamani,” surrounded by the names and epithets of two of the most important funerary gods of the time, Osiris and Anubis. By Anlamani’s time, the Napatan rulers no longer controlled Egypt, but they continued to use the titles of Egyptian kings.

21.11875

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aspelta

Stele and Offering Table of King Aspelta, 593–568 BC
porphyry

The upper part of this stele from the pyramid of Aspelta shows the king standing at the right with his arms raised in worship. Seated and facing him is Osiris, the god of the afterlife.
He appears as a mummy, wearing his distinctive tall, feathered crown and holding a crook and flail, symbols of kingship. Behind Osiris are his wife, Isis, and the canine-headed Anubis, who guides the dead to the afterlife. The Egyptian text below describes purification rituals and requests offerings of food and drink for Aspelta’s eternal use.

The spouted offering table found in front of the stele echoes the requests for eternal nourishment. The surface is decorated with images of bread loaves, trussed ducks, cuts of meat, fruits and vegetables, and a jar for liquid refreshment. If the offerings of real food and drink ever ceased, these images would serve as eternal substitutes.

21.347, 21.1192

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Anlamani

Offering Stand of King Anlamani, 623–593 BC
granite

This offering stand once stood in front of a large granite stele set into the wall in the offering chapel of King Anlamani. By the time of its discovery, it had fallen into the stairway leading down to the king’s burial chamber. The Egyptian inscriptions list the king’s names in cartouches, “King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ankhkara, son of Ra, Anlamani,” surrounded by the names and epithets of two of the most important funerary gods of the time, Osiris and Anubis. By Anlamani’s time, the Napatan rulers no longer controlled Egypt, but they continued to use the titles of Egyptian kings.

21.11876

 

Excavated at Meroe
Napatan Period, reign of Harsiyotef, or his successor

1. Falcon Amulet, 404–396 BC, or later
banded chalcedony

This amulet of striated green and white chalcedony represents the god Horus in the form of a falcon. Napatan jewelers were fond of using unusual types of stone and excelled at maximizing the effects of color.

23.336

 

Excavated at Meroe
Napatan Period

2. Amulet of Thoth, 700–600 BC
chalcedony

Carved from translucent blue chalcedony, a rare stone imported from present-day Turkey, this amulet represents the lunar god Thoth. Here, the god takes the form of a baboon with a crescent moon on his head. The artist must have found the unusual blue color perfectly suited for a deity associated with the moon shining in the night sky.

23.349

 

3. Gold Nugget Pendant, 700–500 BC
gold

Gold was treasured by the Nubians not only for its beauty and economic value but also because it was imperishable, which they believed gave it divine attributes. This amulet is made from a naturally occurring alluvial gold nugget, the largest recovered to date from ancient Nubia. Soldered to the 50-gram specimen is a hand-fabricated cylinder on which it was once strung. Its internal edges show signs of wear, a clear indication that the pendant was worn in life as well as death.

23.311

 

Excavated at Meroe
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

4. Pataikos Cippus Amulet, 690–664 BC
faience

On this amulet the protective deity Pataikos stands on top of a pair of crocodiles. In each hand he grasps a plant and a serpent. Above him is a winged disc with a scarab in the center. On the reverse are incised a hyena, a tree, and a disc with serpent. The rounded shape of the amulet resembles that of a cippus, a traditional form for a protective statue but here made in a portable size.

24.781

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

5. Double Feather Amulet, 690–664 BC
chalcedony

A symbol of power, this amulet from the tomb of King Taharqa represents a pair of falcon feathers. Falcons were associated with both the sun god and the king.

20.247

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Taharqa

6. Finger Ring, 690–664 BC
gold

20.250

 

7. Amulet of a Falcon, 690–664 BC
gold

20.253

 

Excavated at Meroe
Napatan Period

8. Amulets of Harpocrates, 700–600 BC
gold

These tiny amulets depict twin images of Harpocrates, or Horus the Child, the infant form of the god Horus. The chubby physique and sidelock identify him as a young child.

23.368, 23.369

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Analmaaye

9. Ram’s Head Pendant, 542–538 BC
gold

Napatan kings wore distinctive jewelry, in particular pendant necklaces and earrings bearing the head of a ram, the manifestation of Amen, the supreme deity. The engraved semicircle solar disk on the head of this ram pendant refers to Amen’s role as a god of the sun while the two crowned uraeus cobras rising above the disk on the forehead are symbols of kingship.

20.269

 

Excavated at Meroe
Napatan Period

10. Ram’s Head Earring, 550–500 BC
gold

This finely-crafted ram’s head earring comes from a non- royal tomb at Meroe. Originally reserved for royalty, jewelry featuring images of Amen, here represented by the ram, eventually became available to other high-status individuals.

23.333

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Talakhamani

11. Rossettes from a Diadem, 435–431 BC
gold

The flowers seen here are made of gold sheet and would have been attached by loops to a headband. Head ornaments with stylized blossoms have a long history in the Nile valley, but they were not common during the Napatan era, making this a rare example.

20.305–318

 

Excavated at Nuri
Napatan Period, reign of Aramatelka

Relief of Men Playing Senet, 568–555 BC
sandstone

While almost nothing remains of the chapels that once stood against the pyramids at Nuri, this block from the tomb of King Aramatelka is a rare survivor. The scene is adopted from Egyptian tombs of the Old Kingdom from 2,000 years earlier. The figure on the left is playing the board game senet. The decoration is only a preliminary outline and would have been plastered and brightly painted.

24.1789

 

MEROE: 332 BC–350 AD

Sometime prior to the 4th century BC, the Nubian capital moved south to the city of Meroe. A cosmopolitan metropolis and the center of a vast international trading network, Meroe featured a flourishing city center and far-ranging suburbs. These areas included a religious quarter, iron-working facilities, and a complex system for collecting water, as recent excavations have revealed. While it was one of the great cities of antiquity, Meroe remains among the least understood.

In part, that mystery stems from the fact that scholars are unable to read the writing. This writing called Meroitic—the second oldest script in Africa, after Egyptian hieroglyphs—has yet to be fully deciphered. As a result, what scholars know about life in Meroe relies mainly on art, archaeology, and the text of ancient authors from abroad. Scholars have used these sources to piece together the story of this historical moment.

For more than 600 years, Nubia’s kings and queens were buried at Meroe. The Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Expedition excavated most of their pyramid tombs and chapels, bringing to light the objects on view here. The ancient Romans tried—but failed—to conquer Meroe in 22 BC. Ultimately, the Roman emperor Augustus signed a peace treaty with the Nubian queen Amenirenas. The Greek and Roman objects in this gallery may have arrived in Meroe as diplomatic gifts, tribute, or the results of trade with Meroe’s many rulers.

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Meroitic Period

Plaques in the Form of Bound Prisoners, 100 BC–100 AD
bronze

In the Amen temple complex at Gebel Barkal, the excavators found a series of bronze plaques showing tightly bound captive foreigners, including these examples. Each has distinct attributes, and Meroitic inscriptions on the backs identify them. They were originally nailed to the temple’s paneling and flagpoles. The act of driving a nail through their bodies would symbolically “kill” them.

24.1790, 24.1791

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Meroitic Period

Royal Footrest with Prisoner Figures, 270 BC–320 AD
granite

Scenes of Meroitic royals sometimes show them sitting with their feet on footrests decorated with pictures of trussed enemy captives. This fragmentary object found in the Great Amen Temple is part of such a footrest. When the king or queen used it, they symbolically trampled their fallen foes.

24.1792

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

Bells, 40–155 AD
bronze and iron

Meroitic kings, queens, and other elites regularly sacrificed animals in the entrances to their tombs. These bells once adorned horse collars. The incised decoration focuses on the theme of vanquished enemies. Two of the bells portray bound prisoners with spears or arrows protruding from their bodies. The third features fallen soldiers being devoured by vultures. When rung, the bell’s clapper would have symbolically beaten the enemies depicted.

24.857a, 24.858a–b, 24.859

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

Quiver, 150–325 AD
bronze

Nubia was long famous for the skill of its archers. This quiver, complete with its set of arrows,
was discovered in a late tomb at Meroe. A chain allows it to be worn across the body while a tightly fitting hinged lid protected the arrows. Priests carrying short quivers and arrows appear in the scenes from royal chapels at Meroe and elsewhere, suggesting that these objects played some part in funeral ceremonies.

24.963.1

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

Archer’s Thumb Rings, 300 BC–300 AD
granite and quartz

Unlike most archers today, Nubian warriors used the thumb rather than the forefinger to pull back the bowstring. Thumb rings like these, with the thicker end worn toward the base of the thumb, prevented the string from digging into the skin and enabled it to be drawn back further. Eventually, these items became pieces of jewelry independent of their original function.

23.769, 24.884

 

Excavated at Meroe
Roman Imperial Period

Lamp with Handle in the Form of a Horse, 50–75 AD
bronze

The pyramid of Queen Amanikhatashan, the only Nubian ruling queen of the mid-1st century AD, contained a wealth of Roman imports. It is therefore likely that this lamp, with a handle of a galloping horse, comes from the Roman world. The Roman writer Pliny recorded a delegation sent by the emperor Nero on a visit to Meroe. Thus, the imported objects in Amanikhatashan’s tomb, including this lamp, may have been gifts from Rome.

24.967

 

Excavated at Meroe
Greek, Hellenistic–Roman Imperial Period

Incised Finger Ring, 270 BC–320 AD
gold

Likely an import from Ptolemaic Egypt, this delicate little ring bears an inscription in Greek wishing good fortune to its wearer.

24.528

 

Excavated at Meroe
Roman Imperial Period

Bowl, 62–85 AD
bronze

This large, bronze bowl comes from the tomb of Queen Amanikhatashan. In the central boss, or ornamentation, is a scene from ancient Greek mythology. A hunter named Actaeon angered the goddess Artemis, who turned him into a stag, causing his own hunting dogs to kill him. Like the lamp nearby, the bowl might have been a gift to the queen from a delegation sent to Meroe by the Roman emperor Nero.

24.979

 

Excavated at Meroe
Roman, Imperial

Goblet with Relief Decoration, mid-1st century AD
silver and remains of gilding

Encircling this goblet is a man and two small children clinging to a woman. The woman raises her hands in appeal to a seated magistrate, identifiable by the special chair upon which he rests. A man with an axe, perhaps an executioner, stands at the ready. Whether this is an actual historical event, an allegory, or a mythological scene remains unknown. A superb quality import from the Roman world, this gilded silver cup used the repoussé technique, in which the figures in relief were pressed into a metal sheet from behind.

24.971

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period, reign of Takideamani

Hanging Lamp, 140–155 AD
bronze

This bronze lamp, from the tomb of King Takideamani, displays a number of classical features. These include a ame guard in the form of an acanthus leaf, a rosette pattern on the lid, and a handle decorated with the head of a griffin. In the Meroitic Period, classical decorative motifs became so popular that it can be difficult to distinguish between imports and locally made items. However, there is a Meroitic emblem on top of this lamp and an inscription in Meroitic cursive on the back of the acanthus leaf, suggesting that this lamp was produced locally.

24.959

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Meroitic Period

Statuette of a Ram, 500–300 BC
sandstone

Discovered in the courtyard of the Great Temple of Amen, this statue was probably a votive offering.Amen was the most important god in Nubia since at least Napatan times and often appears as a ram.

20.2135

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Meroitic Period

Sphinx, 1st–4th century AD
granodiorite

In both Egypt and Nubia, sphinxes were well-established symbols of royal authority, combining the head of a ruler with the fierce and powerful body of a lion. Because this sphinx was excavated from debris near the great Amen temple at Gebel Barkal, its original context remains unknown, as does the identity of the king it represents.

21.2633

 

Rings

Finger rings were extremely popular during Meroitic times. Both men and women often wore multiple rings, more than one to a finger. Most common were signet rings cast in gold or silver with incised decoration, often bearing images of religious significance. Because the Meroitic script has yet to be deciphered, it is not always clear exactly what the motifs meant to their owners. Some may have functioned as talismans or amulets, bringing power or protection to the wearer.

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

1. Signet Ring, 100 BC–100 AD
gold

The four lions’ heads on the bezel of this gold ring might represent the lion god Apedemak. One of the most powerful deities in the Meroitic pantheon, Apedemak was unique to Nubia. In the center is a rearing cobra, a symbol of royalty.

23.303

 

2. Signet Ring, 100–320 AD
silver

24.575

 

3. Signet Ring, 200–320 AD
gold

The vulture and cobra, originally the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, respectively, came to be symbols of kingship. Nubians likely adopted them in this context.

24.568

 

4. Signet Ring, 100–50 BC
gold

The bezel of this signet ring shows a wide beaded collar. On top is a combination of two elements often depicted individually: the head of Amen and a pair of facing rams, the god’s animal manifestation.

24.569

 

5. Signet Ring, 90 BC–50 AD
gold

On this ring, the infant version of the god Horus, Harpocrates, emerges from the blossom of a lotus, an image of rebirth.

24.570

 

6. Signet Ring, 50 BC–225 AD
gold

The head of a falcon, possibly the sun god, Ra, sits within a sun disk flanked by cobras. He wears a crown typical of Nubian royalty, with a sun disk topped by a pair of feathers and two uraeus cobras—a uniquely Meroitic combination of elements.

24.571

 

7. Finger Ring with Ram’s Head Bezel, 100–320 AD
silver

The bezel of this cast silver ring bears the face of a ram with downward curved horns. The animal wears a headdress composed of a sun disk, tall plumes, and a pair of cobras, symbols of royalty. This is undoubtedly the god Amen. To the viewer, it would have conveyed an image of power while at the same time bringing the god’s protection to the wearer.

24.485

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

8. Finger Ring in the Form of a Rearing Cobra, 100–320 AD
silver

This rearing cobra once wrapped protectively around a finger. In the markings on the cobra’s hood, the metal has been scraped away to create space for now-missing enamel, a technique known as champlevé. This is among the earliest known examples of this type of enameling.

24.515

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period, reign of Aryesbokhe

9. Finger Ring with Key Bezel, 215–225 AD
bronze

24.1075

 

Earrings

Jewelry artists used many complex techniques—stamping, delicate wirework, granulation, enameling, to name a few—to produce a variety of earring types and designs. Some represent local interpretations of Egyptian motifs while others display inspiration from the ancient Greek and Roman world. Earrings were worn by both men and women in Meroitic times. Only one example of each is shown here; in most cases, the matching earring is in the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum.

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

10. Pendant Earring with Double Hathor Head, 90 BC–50 AD
gold and enamel

23.340

 

11. Earring, 90 BC–50 AD
gold and carnelian

23.343

 

12. Pendant Earrings with Hathor Heads and Rosettes, 100 BC–100 AD
gold and enamel

23.339, 23.341, 23.342

 

13. Necklace, 90 BC–50 AD
gold, carnelian, and glass

23.365

 

14. Ear Stud, 100 BC–225 AD
electrum, gold, and enamel

23.329

 

15. Ear Stud, 270 BC–320 AD
gold

23.348

 

16. Ear Stud, 90–220 AD
gold and enamel

Bouquets of stemmed flowers encircle the floral motif in the center of this ear stud.

24.487

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

17. Ear Stud with Kneeling Goddess, 30–170 AD
gold and enamel

The identity of the elaborately dressed goddess shown on this ear stud is not clear, but she may be Mut, the wife of Amen.

24.489

 

18. Ear Stud, 30–170 AD
gold and enamel

The center of this ear stud features three images of the protective god Bes wearing a tall, feathered headdress against a background of dark blue enamel. The rim decoration bears papyrus motifs.

24.490

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period, reign of Aryesbokhe

19. Ear Stud with Goddess Hathor, 215–225 AD
gold and enamel

24.491

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

20. Ear Stud, 100–320 AD
gold and enamel

This elegant ear stud is decorated with cloisonné enamel. For this technique, wires are fused to a sheet of metal, creating compartments that can then be filled with enamel. The conical central portion carries a floral motif. It is surrounded by two rows of granulation, each tiny grain individually soldered on; a band of circles in reddish enamel; and a wreath offlower petals filled with pale blue enamel.

24.551

 

21.–22. Earrings with Pendants, 100–50 BC
gold

24.526, 24.530

 

23. Earring with Bird Pendant, 100–320 AD
gold

24.549

 

24.–25. Bracelets, 100–1 BC
gold and carnelian

Strap-like bracelets, such as these, were frequently worn stacked on both arms. These two come from a set of three matched pairs found in the same tomb. Both are edged by loop-in-loop chains made of thin, delicate wire, which passes through the center of the bracelet at intervals to hold the beads in place. Notice the elaborate decoration of the tiny gold beads. On each end is a lotus flower terminating in a loop fastener.

23.376, 23.377

 

26. Necklace, 50 BC–50 AD
gold and glass

23.390

 

27. Necklace with Leaf-shaped Beads, 50–320 AD
carnelian, travertine, and obsidian

A popular color scheme for Meroitic jewelry was reddish orange, black, and white—here achieved through the use of carnelian, obsidian, and travertine.

23.367

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

28. Necklace, 270–50 BC
gold and carnelian

During the Meroitic Period, Nubian jewelers combined elaborate goldwork with beads made of glass or semi-precious stones. Carnelian, seen here, was a particular favorite. This necklace is composed of 54 hollow gold beads, each made up of a three-dimensional figure soldered to a flat back. As is common in Meroitic jewelry, the metal beads bear images of composite deities. In this case, the lower part of each bead shows the head of a ram wearing a sun disk, most likely the god Amen. On top of the rams’ heads are female heads wearing tall headdresses. These might represent Amen’s wife, Mut.

23.366

 

29. Necklace, 270 BC–320 AD
gold and carnelian

Each of the 20 hollow gold pendants on this partial necklace bears an image of the god Amen in the form of a ram. He wears his characteristic solar disk and tall feathers on his head.

24.486

 

30. Bracelet, 270 BC–320 AD
gold

This bracelet is composed of 10 gold sheet rectangles, each bearing an image of Harpocrates, the infant form of the god Horus. On his head he wears the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, Horus’s typical headgear.

24.531, 24.532

 

Excavated at Gebel Barkal
Meroitic Period

31. Bracelet with Image of Hathor, 250–100 BC
gold and enamel

This bracelet, found in the tomb of a royal woman, is made up of three hinged segments. It is decorated in a technique known as en plein sur fond reserve, in which enamel fills the spaces between appliqués attached to a flat metal background. Here, the goddess Hathor occupies the central panel. The remainder of the bracelet features diamond-shaped appliqués surrounded by dark blue, turquoise, and red enamel, the last being especially rare. Meroitic jewelers were known for their skill with a variety of enameling techniques.

20.333

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

32. Amulet of Ptah, 50–225 AD
agate

The artist who created this amulet of the creator Ptah made the most of natural materials. They took advantage of the stone’s natural banding of agate to depict the god’s garment in white and his flesh in red.

24.509

 

33. Amulet of Amen as a Ram, 100 BC–50 AD
carnelian

24.727

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

Stele of Prince Tedeken, 200–100 BC
granite

Prince Tedeken stands at the right offering food and libations to the god Osiris, seated, and his wife, Isis. By early Meroitic times, inscriptions were written in the Meroitic language, rather than in Egyptian hieroglyphs as they had been earlier. Egyptian hieroglyphs at the top name the god Osiris, while below, an invocation to Isis to provide nourishment to the prince in the afterlife is written in cursive Meroitic.

23.870

 

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

Offering Table of Prince Tedeken, 200–100 BC
granite

The food and drink shown on this offering table would have been for the benefit of the prince in the afterlife. Egyptian hieroglyphs tell us the goddess on the left is Nephthys while the jackal-headed god on the right is Anubis; both are associated with protection. The deities pour water onto the table from which it runs into a hollow oval channel. An offering formula in the Meroitic script, which scholars have not yet been able to translate, runs around the border.

23.873

 

Meroitic Pottery

Fine, decorated pottery is a highlight of Meroitic art. Meroe’s potters produced creative and at times whimsical combinations of design elements including plants, animals, and humans. They drew inspiration from local Nubian traditions as well as the Egyptian and classical worlds. Grapevines were a popular motif—an appropriate choice, considering that wine was a major import from the north. Vessels were wheel-thrown and painted, incised, or stamped.

Excavated at Meroe
Meroitic Period

Cup with Scales and Rosettes, 2nd century BC
pottery

23.1469

 

Excavated at Gammai
Meroitic Period

Incised Blackware Jar, 270 BC–320 AD
pottery

Gift of Mrs. Oric Bates, 1924 24.385

 

Excavated at Karanog
Meroitic Period

Decorated Beaker, 270–320 AD
pottery

MFA-University of Pennsylvania Exchange, 1991 1991.1146

 

Excavated at Karanog
Meroitic Period

Decorated Jar, 1st–3rd century AD
pottery

MFA-University of Pennsylvania Exchange, 1991 1991.1142

 

Excavated at Kerma, Meroitic cemetery
Meroitic Period

Cup with Crescents and Ankh-signs, 270 BC–320 AD
pottery

13.4031

 

Excavated at Kerma, Meroitic cemetery
Meroitic Period

Decorated Spheroid Jar, 2nd century AD
pottery

13.4038

 

Photo blowups

 

Mohammedani Ibrahim Ibrahim

Kom IV toward the N, January 13, 1914

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition; Photograph ©Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

 

Mahmud Shadduf

Pyramid XVI, Room B, toward “W”, March 12, 1919

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition; Photograph ©Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

 

Mohammedani Ibrahim Ibrahim

Pyramid III toward “E”, February 19, 1916

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition; Photograph ©Museum of Fine Arts, Boston